The Ecology of Transportation: Managing Mobility for the Environment

CONTENTS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CONTRIBUTORS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1: ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AVIATION

1. Introduction

2. A brief history of aviation and its ecological impacts

2.1 COMMERCIAL CIVIL AVIATION

2.2 GENERAL AVIATION

2.3 MILITARY AVIATION

2.4 OTHER FORMS OF AVIATION

3. The ecological effects of air transport

3.1 THE NON-LETHAL EFFECTS OF AIRCRAFT ON WILDLIFE

3.2 NON-LETHAL INTERACTION BETWEEN AIRCRAFT AND ANIMALS AT AIRPORTS

3.3 REDUCTION OF THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF NON-LETHAL AVIATION

3.4 MILITARY AVIATION AND AERIAL BOMBING CAMPAIGNS

4. The wildlife hazard problem

4.1 ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AIR TRANSPORT: NUMBERS OF ANIMAL FATALITIES

4.2 SPECIES KILLED BY AIRCRAFT

5. Airports in the environment

5.1 DIRECT IMPACT OF AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

5.2 IMPACT OF ANCILLARY STRUCTURES

5.3 ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT FOR AIR SAFETY

5.4 SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

6. Aviation and the transport of alien species

References

CHAPTER 2: THE LOCAL COSTS TO ECOLOGICAL SERVICES ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH SEAS GLOBAL TRANSPORT

1. Introduction

2. Time frames of evolution of species assemblages in coastal environments with emphasis on keystone species

3. Impacts of human society on species assemblages and physical structure in coastal environments

4. Rates of change of communities in response to changing volume and types of vectors over human history

6. The regulatory environment

7. Approaches to restoration of native species

8. Approaches supporting use of non-native species as a restoration tool

9. Future prospects

Acknowledgments

References

CHAPTER 3: SHIPWRECKED – SHIPPING IMPACTS ON THE BIOTA OF THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

1. Introduction

2. Shipping-related petroleum hydrocarbons in the Mediterranean Sea

2.1 THE DISTRIBUTION AND ACCUMULATION OF SHIPPING-RELATED PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

2.2 THE DISTRIBUTION AND ACCUMULATION OF TAR IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

2.3 IMPACT OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS ON THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOTA

3. Ship-generated marine litter in the Mediterranean Sea

3.1 DISTRIBUTION AND ACCUMULATION OF SHIP-GENERATED LITTER IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

3.2 IMPACT OF SHIP-GENERATED LITTER ON THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOTA

3.3 POLICY AND MANAGEMENT OF SHIP-GENERATED LITTER

4. Ship-generated noise in the Mediterranean Sea

4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF SHIP-GENERATED NOISE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

4.2 IMPACT OF SHIP-GENERATED NOISE ON THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOTA

4.3 POLICY AND MANAGEMENT OF SHIP-GENERATED NOISE

5. Shipping-transported alien biota in the Mediterranean

5.1 DISTRIBUTION OF SHIPPING-TRANSPORTED ALIEN BIOTA IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

5.2 IMPACT OF SHIPPING TRANSPORTED ALIENS ON THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOTA

5.3 POLICY AND MANAGEMENT OF SHIPPING-TRANSPORTED BIOTA

6. Shipping-derived antifouling biocides in the Mediterranean Sea

6.1 THE DISTRIBUTION AND ACCUMULATION OF BIOCIDAL ANTIFOULANTS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

6.2 IMPACT OF ANTIFOULING BIOCIDES ON THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOTA

6.3 POLICY AND MANAGEMENT OF TBT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

7. Coda

Acknowledgments

References

CHAPTER 4: SNAKES AND LADDERS: NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS AS INVASION CORRIDORS

1. Introduction

2. Keystone invasive species

3. Future trends

4. Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 5: THE TRANSPORT AND THE SPREAD OF LIVING AQUATIC SPECIES

1. Introduction

2. Ships and other floating craft

2.1 TRANSPORT AND HULL FOULING

2.2 TRANSPORT OF ORGANISMS WITH SHIPS’ BALLAST

2.3 AQUATIC PRODUCTS AS CARGO

3. Overland transport

3.1 RAIL AND ROAD

4. Transport by aircraft

4.1 LONG DISTANCE JOURNEYS

4.2 SHORT DISTANCE JOURNEYS

5. Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

CHAPTER 6: SMALL CRAFT AND THE SPREAD OF EXOTIC SPECIES

1. Introduction

2. Incursions of non-indigenous species associated with small craft movements

3. Hull fouling on small craft: influencing factors and prevalence in locations worldwide

3.1 SMALL CRAFT MARINAS – SOURCES OF FOULING

3.2 HUMAN FACTORS INFLUENCING HULL FOULING

3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING HULL FOULING

3.4 PREVALENCE OF HULL-FOULING ORGANISMS ON SMALL CRAFT IN LOCATIONS WORLDWIDE

4. Long distance routes and global patterns of small craft movements

4.1 VOYAGES

4.2. DOMESTIC CRAFT

5. The increase in the private boating industry

6. Risk assessment of leisure boat fouling

7. Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

CHAPTER 7: THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PRIVATE CAR TRANSPORT ON THE SUSTAINABILITY OF IRISH SETTLEMENTS

1. Introduction

2. The development of settlements from the Industrial Revolution to the Age of Sustainable Development

3. The importance of accessibility, population density and mixed land uses to a sustainable transport system

4. Transport and sustainability in Ireland

5. The SFSPI study of the sustainability of transport in Ireland

5.1 SETTLEMENT CLASSES

5.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SERVICES

5.3 DISTANCE TRAVELLED BETWEEN RESIDENCE AND WORKPLACE IN SETTLEMENTS

5.4 RESULTS FOR ANALYSES OF SETTLEMENT CLASSES

5.5 THE EFFECTS OF RECENT POPULATION CHANGE AND PLACE IN THE SPATIAL HIERARCHY ON TRAVEL MODE CHOICE

6. Calculation of carbon dioxide emissions from transport

6.1 CO2 EMISSIONS FOR SETTLEMENT CLASSES

6.2 CO2 EMISSIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL SETTLEMENTS

7. Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 8: MORTALITY IN WILDLIFE DUE TO TRANSPORTATION

1. Introduction

2. The extent of animal-vehicle collisions

3. Evaluating animal-vehicle collisions

3.1 ETHICAL, POLITICAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS

3.2 TRAFFIC SAFETY AND ECONOMICAL CONCERN

3.3 POPULATION MANAGEMENT AND SPECIES CONSERVATION

4. Factors and patterns in animal-vehicle collisions

4.1 ANIMAL ABUNDANCE AND ACTIVITY

4.2. TRAFFIC INTENSITY AND VEHICLE SPEED

4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

5. Mitigation against animal-vehicle collisions

5.1. EXCLUSION FENCES AND FAUNA PASSAGES

5.2 GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION AND MITIGATION

6. Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 9 : HABITAT FRAGMENTATION DUE TO TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE: PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. What is habitat fragmentation?

2. Impact of roads/railways on wildlife

2.1 THE BARRIER EFFECT

2.2 ROAD KILL

2.3 OTHER EFFECTS

3. Route selection framework

3.1 DECISION MAKING PROCESS

3.2 COMPENSATION

3.3 OTHER ECONOMIC AND PUBLIC RELATIONS ISSUES

4. Minimising habitat fragmentation – permeability measures

4.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

4.2 OVERPASSES

4.3 UNDERPASSES FOR MEDIUM/LARGE ANIMALS

4.4 UNDERPASSES FOR SMALL ANIMALS

5. Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 10: RESTORING HABITAT CONNECTIVITY ACROSS TRANSPORT CORRIDORS: IDENTIFYING HIGH-PRIORITY LOCATIONS FOR DE-FRAGMENTATION WITH THE USE OF AN EXPERT-BASED MODEL

1. Introduction

2. Applied methods to identify de-fragmentation locations

2.1 SURVEYING CROSS-BARRIER WILDLIFE MOVEMENTS

2.2 PREDICTING CROSS-BARRIER WILDLIFE MOVEMENTS

3. Population viability analysis (PVA) as a tool to identify de-fragmentation locations

3.1 WHY INCLUDE PVA?

3.2 HOW TO INCLUDE PVA?

4. Case study: De-fragmentation of transport corridors in The Netherlands

5. Combination of methods

6. Future challenges in restoring habitat connectivity

6.1 INTEGRATION OF PVA IN TRANSPORT PLANNING

6.2 PLANNING RESEARCH IN EARLY STAGES

6.3 DISSEMINATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND BEST-PRACTICES

6.4 CONSTRUCTING MORE ROBUST MITIGATION MEASURES

6.5 ACQUIRING PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING AND SUPPORT

References

CHAPTER 11: HABITAT AND CORRIDOR FUNCTION OF RIGHTS-OF-WAY

1. Introduction

2. Extent of road, railroad and rights-of-way networks

3. Habitat function of rights-of-way

3.1 PARTIAL HABITAT

3.2 COMPLETE HABITAT

4. Corridor function of rights-of-way

4.1 HOME RANGE MOVEMENTS

4.2 SPREAD

4.3 DISPERSAL

5. Factors affecting the quality of rights-of-way as a habitat or corridor

5.1 TRAFFIC VOLUME

5.2 WIDTH OF RIGHTS-OF-WAY

5.3 MOWING AND HERBICIDES

5.4 SOIL DISTURBANCE AND BURNING

5.5 VEGETATION STRUCTURE & SURROUNDING LANDSCAPE

6. Potential problems

6.1 ROAD KILL AND POPULATION SINK

6.2 INVASIVE SPECIES

7. Discussion and conclusion

References

CHAPTER 12: IMPACT OF ROAD TRAFFIC ON BREEDING BIRD POPULATIONS

1. Introduction

2. Effects on breeding densities

2.1 EVIDENCE FOR TRAFFIC AS THE MAIN CAUSE OF REDUCED DENSITIES NEAR ROADS

2.2 HOW GENERAL IS THE EFFECT?

2.3 EFFECT SIZE

3. Probable causal factors and mode of action

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN EFFECT ON BREEDING DENSITY AND CAUSAL FACTORS

3.3 MODE OF ACTION: EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOUR AND POPULATION DYNAMICS

4. Effects of road traffic on breeding bird populations at a regional scale: a case study for The Netherlands

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 METHODS

4.3 RESULTS

4.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

5. Practical implications for road planning and management

5.1 AVOIDANCE

5.2 MITIGATION

5.3 COMPENSATION

6. Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 13: TOWARDS THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ROAD ECOSYSTEMS

1. Introduction

2. The ‘Ecological Footprint’ of modern road ecosystems

2.1 HABITAT LOSS

2.2 HABITAT FRAGMENTATION

2.3 NON-NATIVE INVASIVE SPECIES

2.4 LANDSCAPE QUALITY

2.5 POLLUTION

2.6 ASSOCIATED OR RIBBON DEVELOPMENT

3. Strategic environmental assessment

4. The ecosystem approach and sustainable road ecosystem development

4.1 THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

4.2 ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

4.3 STAKEHOLDERS AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

4.4 A TRANSDISCIPLINARY APPROACH

5. Planning phase

5.1 ROUTE SELECTION PROCESS

5.2 VOLUME-ORIENTED MEASURES AND POLLUTION

5.3 LAND-TAKE REQUIREMENTS

5.4 ROAD DECOMISSIONING

5.5 PLANNING FOR ROAD USERS

5.6 GREENWAYS

6. Sustainable design

6.1 HABITAT LOSS AND THE EXTENT OF LANDTAKE

6.2 HABITAT FRAGMENTATION AND WILDLIFE CROSSING STRUCTURES

6.3 INTERSECTIONS BETWEEN ROAD ECOSYSTEMS AND WATERCOURSES

6.4 SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE DESIGN

6.5 RESTORATION OF LANDSCAPE QUALITY

6.6 SOIL STABILISATION

6.7 TECHNICAL DESIGN ASPECTS: THE ROAD SURFACE AND BED, AND STREET FURNITURE

6.8 EFFECT ORIENTED MEASURES

7. Sustainable construction

7.1 SOIL MOVEMENT AND STORAGE

7.2 ROCK CUTTINGS

7.3 DISTURBANCE OF VEGETATION

7.4 SALVAGING PLANT MATERIAL

7.5 CONTROL OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES

7.6 CONTROL OF POLLUTION

7.7 SUSTAINABLE USE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

8. Sustainable operation/use

8.1 ROAD USERS

8.2 TECHNICAL DESIGN ASPECTS AND VEHICLES

9. Maintenance phase

9.1 ROAD SURFACE MATERIAL

9.2 SUSTAINABLE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

9.3 VEGETATION

9.4 INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES

9.5 GREEN LANES AND MODIFIED BRIDGES

10. Road decommissioning phase

11. Conclusion and recommendations

Acknowledgments

References

CHAPTER 14: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TRANSPORT, RELATED TO TOURISM AND LEISURE ACTIVITIES

1. Introduction

2. Mass tourist transport

2.1 RAIL AND ROAD TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

2.2 FERRIES AND CRUISE SHIPS

2.3 ECOTOURISM TRANSPORT

2.4 SIGHT-SEEING AIR TOURISM

3. Individual leisure transport

3.1 LAND TRANSPORT

3.2 WATER TRANSPORT

3.3 AIR TRANSPORT

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

CHAPTER 15: CONTAMINANTS AND POLLUTANTS

1. Introduction

2. Sources of contaminants and pollutants from transport

2.1 EMISSIONS FROM THE COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS

2.2 RUNOFF

2.3 HUMAN WASTES AND SERVICING

2.4 OIL POLLUTION

2.5 ANTIFOULING AGENTS

2.6 SHIPPING ACCIDENTS

3. Consequences

3.1 ATMOSPHERIC CHANGES

3.2 AQUATIC SYSTEMS

4. Potential mitigation and solutions

4.1 OVERALL REDUCTION OR ELIMINATION OF EMISSIONS

4.2 TREATMENT OF RUNOFF FROM ROAD TRANSPORTATION

4.3 RUNOFF FROM RAIL TRANSPORT

4.4. AQUATIC TRANSPORT

5. Future perspectives

References

INDEX