Phonological Evidence from the Continental Runic Inscriptions

Acknowledgements

Prefatory note

Abbreviations

Abbreviations for languages and linguistic terms

Abbreviations for sources

Part I: Text

1. The Continental runic inscriptions

1.1 General introduction

1.1.1 The dialect(s) of the inscriptions

1.1.2 Chronology and dating

1.1.3 Reconstructing and representing PGmc

1.1.4 Orthography and phonology: the relationship of grapheme to phoneme

1.2 The corpus of runic inscriptions

1.2.1 Geographical and chronological context

1.2.2 Content and graphology

1.2.3 Authenticity

2. Phonology and runic orthography

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The vocalic system of lPGmc

2.2.1 Short vowels

2.2.2 Long vowels

2.2.3 Diphthongs

2.2.4 On the distinction “front” vs. “back”

2.3 The vocalic systems of OHG and OS

2.3.1 Diphthongs

2.3.1.1 PGmc*/eu/

2.3.1.2 The NWGmc monophthongisation of unstressed */ai/ and */au/

2.3.1.3 PGmc */ai/ in OHG and OS

2.3.1.3.1 Conditions for monophthongisation

2.3.1.3.2 Chronology

2.3.1.3.3 Phonetic development

2.3.1.4 PGmc */au/ in OHG and OS

2.3.1.4.1 Conditions for monophthongisation

2.3.1.4.2 Chronology

2.3.1.4.3 Phonetic development

2.3.2 Back vocalics

2.3.2.1 PGmc */u/

2.3.2.2 PGmc */u¯/

2.3.2.3 PGmc */o¯/

2.3.2.4 PGmc */w/

2.3.3 Front vocalics

2.3.3.1 PGmc */i/

2.3.3.2 PGmc */e/

2.3.3.3 PGmc */i¯/

2.3.3.4 PGmc */e¯1/

2.3.3.5 PGmc */e¯2/

2.3.3.6 PGmc */j/

2.3.4 Low vowels

2.3.4.1 PGmc */a/

2.3.4.2 “Primary” i-umlaut

2.3.4.3 lPGmc */a¯x/ < PGmc */anx/

2.3.5 Anaptyxis

2.3.6 Summary

2.4 The consonantal system of lPGmc

2.4.1 Subcategorising the obstruents

2.5 The consonantal systems of OHG and OS

2.5.1 The obstruents

2.5.1.1 Early development of the PGmc obstruents

2.5.1.1.1 Reflexes of PGmc */b/

2.5.1.1.2 Reflexes of PGmc */g/

2.5.1.1.3 Loss of PGmc */z/

2.5.1.2 The Second Consonant Shift

2.5.1.2.1 Phonetic development: Tenuisverschiebung

2.5.1.2.2 Phonetic development: Medienverschiebung

2.5.1.2.3 Geographical distribution

2.5.1.2.4 Chronology

2.5.1.3 Spirantenschwachung and the despirantisation of /./

2.5.1.4 Other processes affecting the obstruents

2.5.1.4.1 Notkers Anlautgesetz and final devoicing

2.5.1.4.2 Deletion of /h/

2.5.1.4.3 Irregular(?) changes in consonant clusters

2.5.2 The sonorants

2.5.2.1 The “liquids” (PGmc */l r/)

2.5.2.1.1 The phonetic quality of OHG OS /r/

2.5.2.2 The nasals (PGmc */m n/)

2.5.3 Epenthetic (and prothetic) consonants

2.5.4 Summary

2.6 Runic orthography

2.6.1 Graphemic representation of the high vowels and the corresponding semivowels

2.6.2 Orthographic rules proposed in the runological literature

3. The diphthongs

3.1 PGmc */eu/

3.1.1 Data

3.1.2 Summary and discussion

3.1.2.1 Umlaut

3.1.2.2 UG consonant-conditioned variation

3.1.3 Conclusion: reflexes of */eu/ in the corpus

3.2 PGmc */ai/

3.2.1 Data: digraphs

3.2.1.1 Summary: digraphs representing PGmc */ai/

3.2.2 Data: monographs

3.2.2.1 Summary: monographs representing PGmc */ai/

3.2.2.1.1 Unstressed syllables: the NWGmc monophthongisation

3.2.2.1.2 Stressed syllables: the OHG/OS monophthongisation

3.2.3 Conclusion: reflexes of */ai/ in the corpus

3.2.3.1 Unstressed syllables: the NWGmc monophthongisation

3.2.3.2 Stressed syllables: the OHG and OS monophthongisations

3.3 PGmc */au/

3.3.1 Data: digraphs

3.3.1.1 Summary: digraphs representing PGmc */au/

3.3.2 Data: monographs

3.3.2.1 Summary: monographs representing PGmc */au/

3.3.3 Conclusion: reflexes of */au/ in the corpus

4. The back vocalics

4.1 Data

4.2 Summary

4.2.1 Reflexes of */u/

4.2.1.1 Stressed/stem syllables

4.2.1.2 Unstressed syllables

4.2.2 Anaptyctic vowels

4.2.3 Reflexes of */o¯/

4.2.3.1 Stressed syllables

4.2.3.2 Unstressed syllables

4.2.4 Reflexes of */u¯/

4.2.4.1 Stressed syllables

4.2.4.2 Unstressed syllables

4.2.5 Reflexes of */w/

4.3 Conclusions

4.4 The nom. o¯-stems: a problem in morphophonology

4.4.1 Sequences in -u

4.4.2 Sequences in -Ø

4.4.3 Sequences in -a

4.4.3.1 Co-textual evidence for the assignment of oblique case

4.4.3.2 Summary of co-textual evidence

4.4.3.3 Putative nom.sg. o¯-stems in -a

4.4.4 Sequences in -o

4.4.5 Conclusions on the nom.sg. o¯-stem suffix(es)

5. The front vocalics

5.1 Data

5.2 Summary

5.2.1 Reflexes of the short front vowels

5.2.1.1 Stressed syllables

5.2.1.2 Unstressed syllables

5.2.2 Reflexes of the long front vowels

5.2.2.1 */i¯/ in stressed syllables

5.2.2.2 */e¯1/ in stressed syllables

5.2.2.3 */e¯2/ in stressed syllables

5.2.2.4 Long front vowels in unstressed syllables

5.2.3 Reflexes of */j/

5.2.4 The “yew-rune” N

5.3 Conclusions

6. The low vowels

6.1 Data

6.2 Summary

6.3 Conclusions

7. The consonants

7.1 The obstruents

7.1.1 The “labials” (PGmc */p b f/)

7.1.1.1 Data

7.1.1.2 Summary

7.1.1.2.1 PGmc */p/

7.1.1.2.2 PGmc */b/

7.1.1.2.3 PGmc */f/

7.1.2 The “dentals” (PGmc */t d ? s z/)

7.1.2.1 Data

7.1.2.2 Summary

7.1.2.2.1 PGmc */t/

7.1.2.2.2 PGmc */d/

7.1.2.2.3 PGmc */./

7.1.2.2.4 PGmc */s/

7.1.2.2.5 PGmc */z/

7.1.3 The “gutturals” (PGmc */k g x/)

7.1.3.1 Data

7.1.3.2 Summary

7.1.3.2.1 PGmc */k/

7.1.3.2.2 PGmc */g/

7.1.3.2.3 PGmc */x/

7.1.4 Conclusions on the obstruents

7.1.4.1 The Second Consonant Shift

7.1.4.2 Spirantenschwächung

7.1.4.3 Initial and final devoicing

7.2 The sonorants

7.2.1 The “liquids” (PGmc */l r/)

7.2.1.1 Data

7.2.1.2 Summary and conclusions

7.2.2 The nasals (PGmc */m n/)

7.2.2.1 Data

7.2.2.2 Summary and conclusions

8. The phonological system(s) of “Continental Runic”

8.1 Vocalics

8.1.1 Short vowels

8.1.1.1 Stressed syllables

8.1.1.2 Unstressed syllables

8.1.1.3 Anaptyxis

8.1.2 Long vowels

8.1.2.1 Stressed syllables

8.1.2.2 Unstressed syllables

8.1.3 Diphthongs

8.1.3.1 Stressed syllables

8.1.3.2 Unstressed syllables

8.1.4 Semivowels

8.2 Consonants

8.2.1 Obstruents

8.2.2 Sonorants

8.3 Theoretical and methodological considerations

8.3.1 Grapheme and phoneme

8.3.2 Phonological theory

Part II: Catalogue

Notes on catalogue entries

Designation of items

Concordance

Find-site

Context

Provenance

Datings

Readings

Images

1. Aalen

2. Aquincum

3. Arlon

4. Aschheim II

5. Aschheim III

6. Bad Ems

7. Bad Krozingen A

8. Balingen

9. Beuchte

10. Bezenye I

11. Bezenye II

12. Bopfingen

13. Borgharen

14. Bülach

15. Charnay

16. Chéhéry

17. Dischingen I

18. Donzdorf

19. Eichstetten

20. Engers

21. Erpfting

22. Ferwerd

23. Freilaubersheim

24. Fréthun I

25. Friedberg

26. Gammertingen

27. Geltorf II

28. Gomadingen

29. Griesheim

30. Hailfingen I

31. Hailfingen II

32. †Hainspach

33. Heide

34. Heilbronn-Böckingen I

35. Hitsum

36. Hohenstadt

37. Hoogebeintum

38. Hüfingen I

39. Hüfingen II

40. Hüfingen III

41. Igling-Unterigling

42. †Kärlich

43. “Kent”

44. Kirchheim/Teck I

45. Kirchheim/Teck II

46. †Kleines Schulerloch

47. Lauchheim I

48. Lauchheim II

49. Liebenau

50. Mertingen

51. München-Aubing I

52. München-Aubing II

53. Neudingen-Baar I

54. Neudingen-Baar II

55. Niederstotzingen

56. Nordendorf I

57. Nordendorf II

58. Oberflacht

59. Oettingen

60. Osthofen

61. Pforzen I

62. Pforzen II

63. Pleidelsheim

64. †Rubring

65. †Rügen

66. Saint-Dizier

67. Schretzheim I

68. Schretzheim II

69. Schretzheim III

70. Schwangau

71. Sievern

72. Skodborg

73. Skonager III

74. Soest

75. Steindorf

76. Stetten

77. Szabadbattyán

78. †Trier

79. Weimar I

80. Weimar II

81. Weimar III

82. Weimar IV

83. Weingarten I

84. Weingarten II

85. †Weser I

86. †Weser II

87. †Weser III

88. †Wijnaldum B

89. Wremen

90. Wurmlingen

Appendix 1: Handlist of Continental runic inscriptions excluded from the corpus

Inscriptions with find-sites in the study area, but dated before c.400 AD

Inscriptions with find-sites in the study area, but positively identifiable as non-WGmc

Inscriptions outside the study area, possibly classified as WGmc, but excluded due to early date

Frisian inscriptions excluded due to use of additional runes

Inscriptions (or rune-like carvings) with find-sites in the study area, but of doubtful runic character

Inscriptions with find-sites in the area which are positively identified as runic, but have no linguistic interpretation

Inscriptions found in the area but consisting only of (partial) fuþarks

Items known to be modern forgeries

Additional exclusion (see § 1.2.2)

Appendix 2: Suspect inscriptions. Possible forgeries and the assessment of authenticity

Appendix 3: The “Berlin” scabbard mouthpiece

Maps

Bibliography

Abbreviations for journals and corporate authors

References

Fonts

Index of inscriptions