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Front Cover
1
The Human Nervous System
4
Copyright
5
Dedication
6
Contents
8
Contributors
10
Preface
12
Acknowledgments
12
Section I - Evolution and Development
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Chapter 1 - Brain Evolution
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The Human Brain as an Outlier
15
The Human Brain in Numbers
16
Cerebral Cortex and Connectivity
17
Concerted Expansion of Cerebral Cortex and Cerebellum
19
Human Brain Evolution: Comparison with Great Apes
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Hominin Evolution: Estimates of Numbers of Brain Neurons in Prehistoric Homo
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Human Brain Metabolism Revisited
22
Conclusion: Remarkable, Yet not Extraordinary
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References
25
Chapter 2 - Development of the Peripheral Nervous System
27
Cranial Nerves
27
Somatic Peripheral Nervous System
34
Autonomic and Enteric Nervous System
36
References
39
Chapter 3 - Fetal Development of the Central Nervous System
44
Cerebral Cortex
45
Deep Telencephalic Nuclei
53
Diencephalon
64
Midbrain
72
Cerebellum and Pre-Cerebellar Nuclei
74
Pons and Medulla
78
Spinal Cord
82
References
84
Section II - Peripheral Nervous System and Spinal Cord
94
Chapter 4 - Peripheral Nervous System Topics
95
Introduction
96
History
97
Embryology
99
Dorsal Root Ganglion and the Pseudo-Unipolar Neurons
103
Schwann Cells, Satellite Cells, and Mast Cells
110
Nerve Fibers
117
Plexus
120
Proprioception and Endplates
131
Peripheral Nervous System Engineering
139
References
143
Chapter 5 - Peripheral Autonomic Pathways
154
General Organization of Autonomic Pathways
154
Cranial Autonomic Pathways
157
Sympathetic Pathways
168
Pelvic Autonomic Pathways
176
Enteric Plexuses
180
Adrenal Medulla and Paraganglia
182
Concluding Remarks
183
References
183
Chapter 6 - Spinal Cord: Regional Anatomy, Cytoarchitecture and Chemoarchitecture
199
Cytoarchitecture of the Human Spinal Cord
201
Chemoarchitecture of the Human Spinal Cord
218
References
235
Chapter 7 - Spinal Cord: Connections
246
Primary Afferent Projections to the Spinal Cord
246
Propriospinal Pathways
247
Ascending Spinal Projections
249
Descending Spinal Projections
258
Descending Brainstem Projections
261
Projections from the Retroambiguus Nucleus to the Spinal Cord
265
Hypothalamic and Diencephalic Projections to the Spinal Cord
265
Coeruleospinal and Raphespinal Tracts
266
Other Descending Projections from the Trigeminal and Dorsal Column Nuclei
266
Cerebellospinal Projections
266
References
266
Section III - Brainstem And Cerebellum
272
Chapter 8 - Organization of Brainstem Nuclei
273
Abbreviations Used in the Figures
275
Autonomic Regulatory Centers
313
Reticular Formation
317
Tegmental Nuclei
321
Locus Coeruleus
322
Raphe Nuclei
323
Ventral Mesencephalic Tegmentum and Substantia Nigra
325
Cranial Motor Nuclei
326
Somatosensory System
327
Vestibular Nuclei
329
Auditory System
330
Visual System
331
Precerebellar Nuclei and Red Nucleus
331
Conclusion
334
References
334
Chapter 9 - Reticular Formation: Eye Movements, Gaze and Blinks
341
Introduction
342
Eye and Head Movements
343
Eyelid and Blink
364
References
370
Chapter 10 - Periaqueductal Gray
380
External Boundaries of the PAG
381
Internal Boundaries of the PAG
381
Chemoarchitecture of the Primate PAG
388
Connectivity of the Primate PAG
392
Functional Aspects
399
Conclusion
407
References
407
Chapter 11 - Raphe Nuclei
414
Divisions of the Raphe Nuclei
416
Connectivity
421
Functional Considerations
427
References
431
Chapter 12 - Locus Coeruleus
438
Introduction
438
Development and Topographical Organization
438
Morphology and Neurochemistry of LC Neurons
440
Functional Connectivity
440
Physiology and Behavior
444
LC Involvement in the Pathophysiology of Age-Related Neurologic Disease
446
Summary
447
References
447
Chapter 13 - Substantia Nigra, Ventral Tegmental Area, and Retrorubral Fields
452
Introduction
452
Substantia Nigra
453
Ventral Tegmental Area
459
Retrorubral Fields
460
Functional Connections
461
Conclusion
464
References
465
Chapter 14 - Brainstem Cholinergic Systems
469
Introduction
469
Cholinergic Neurons of the Brainstem Reticular Formation
470
Cytochemical Signatures
472
Axonal Targets
474
Postsynaptic Effects
478
Functional Affiliations
478
Summary and Conclusions
481
Anatomical Abbreviations
481
References
482
Chapter 15 - Cerebellum and Precerebellar Nuclei
484
Introduction
485
External Form and Subdivision of the Human Cerebellum
485
The Cerebellar Cortex
489
The Cerebellar Nuclei
497
The Cerebellar Peduncles
499
The Corticonuclear Projection
502
The Inferior Olive and the Olivocerebellar Projection
505
Zonal Organization of the Primate Cerebellar Cortex
515
Brainstem and Thalamo-Cortical Projections of the Cerebellar Nuclei Recurrent Cerebello-Olivary Loops
520
The Distribution of Mossy Fiber Systems
530
The Skeletomotor Cerebellum
537
The Oculomotor Cerebellum
538
Non-Motor Functions of the Cerebellum
541
Phylogenetic and Functional Subdivisions of the Cerebellum and their Somatotopical Organization
543
References
545
Section IV - Diencephalon, Basal Ganglia, Basal Forebrain And Amygdala
560
Chapter 16 - Hypothalamus
561
Cytoarchitecture of the Human Hypothalamus
562
Fiber Connections of the Hypothalamus
569
Functional Organization of the Hypothalamus
575
References
587
Chapter 17 - Hypophysis
597
Introduction
597
Anatomy of the Hypophysis
597
Imaging of the Hypophysis
599
Histology
600
Ultrastructure
603
References
605
Chapter 18 - Circumventricular Organs
607
General Characteristics of Circumventricular Organs
607
Subfornical Organ
608
Vascular Organ of the Lamina Terminalis (OVLT)
612
Median Eminence and Neurohypophysis
615
Pineal Gland
619
The Subcommissural Organ
621
Area Postrema
622
Choroid Plexus
624
References
625
Chapter 19 - Thalamus
631
Introduction
631
Superior Region
632
Medial Region
641
Lateral Region
647
Intralaminar Formation
662
Periventricular Formation
669
Posterior Region
673
Dedication and Acknowledgments
679
References
680
Chapter 20 - The Basal Ganglia
691
Introduction
691
Topography, Cytoarchitecture, and Basic Circuitry
692
Functional Basal Ganglia Connections
719
Functional Considerations
729
References
732
Chapter 21 - Sex Differences in the Forebrain
752
Introduction
753
Sex Hormone Receptors
753
Nucleus Basalis of Meynert (NBM) and Diagonal Band of Broca (DB)
754
Islands of Calleja (Insulae Terminalis)
755
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
755
Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus of the Preoptic Area (SDN-POA)
756
Interstitial Nucleus of Anterior Hypothalamus INAH-3 and INAH-4, or Uncinate Nucleus
758
Anterior Commissure and Interthalamic Adhesion or Massa Intermedia
759
Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BST)
759
Supraoptic and Paraventricular Nucleus (SON, PVN)
761
The Ventromedial Nucleus (VMH
Nucleus of Cajal)764
Infundibular Nucleus (Arcuate Nucleus), Subventricular Nucleus, and Median Eminence
765
Tuberomamilary Nucleus (TMN)
766
Corpora Mamillaria
766
Conclusions
766
Abbreviations used in the Figures
766
References
767
Chapter 22 - Amygdala
772
Definition of the Amygdala and Overview of Terminology
772
Topography
774
Anatomical Divisions
778
Abbreviations (including Figures and Tables)
833
References
836
Section V - Cortex
848
Chapter 23 - Architecture of the Cerebral Cortex
849
Principal Subdivisions of the Cerebral Cortex
849
Quantitative Aspects of the Cerebral Cortex and Gender Differences
851
Asymmetries in the Cerebral Cortex
852
Paleocortex
855
Archicortex
857
Isocortex
861
Cortical Maps of the Human Brain: Past, Present, Future
891
References
893
Chapter 24 - Hippocampal Formation
909
Gross Anatomical Features
910
Cytoarchitectonic Organization of the Hippocampal Formation
917
Hippocampal Connectivity
929
A Note on the Development of the Human Hippocampal Formation
939
Clinical Anatomy
939
Functional Considerations
944
References
946
Chapter 25 - Cingulate Cortex
956
Overview
957
The Four-Region Neurobiological Model: Circuitry
957
Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Autonomic Regulation and Emotion
959
Midcingulate Cortex
961
Posterior Cingulate Cortex
Dorsal and Ventral Subregions965
Retrosplenial Cortex Functions
966
Limbic Functions of Cingulate Subregions
967
Medial Surface Features
968
Flat Maps of Primate Medial Cortex
970
Cytology of Anterior Cingulate Cortex
971
Cytology of Midcingulate Cortex
974
Ectocallosal, Ectosplenial, and Retrosplenial Cortices
978
Posterior Cingulate Cortex
983
Caudomedial Subregion
984
The Cingulate Dysgranular Belt
985
Overview of Receptor Binding by Region and Layer
986
Some Comparative Features of Human and Monkey
988
Anterior Cingulate Cortex
989
Midcingulate Cortex
990
Retrosplenial Cortex
992
Posterior Cingulate Cortex
992
Is all Cortex in the Monkey Cingulate Sulcus Cingulate Cortex?
993
Perspectives on Human Imaging of Cingulate Cortex Structure and Functions
996
References
996
Chapter 26 - The Frontal Cortex
1001
Sulcal and Gyral Morphology of the Frontal Cortex
1002
Architectonic Organization
1006
Corticocortical Connection Patterns
1014
References
1023
Chapter 27 - Motor Cortex*
1025
Introduction
1025
Macaque Motor Cortex
1026
Human Motor Cortex
1035
Concluding Remarks
1042
References
1043
Chapter 28 - Posterior Parietal Cortex: Multimodal Association Cortex
1049
Macroanatomy of Posterior Parietal Cortex
1050
Architectonical Organization
1051
Functional Segregation
1058
Connectivity Pattern
1061
Conclusion
1065
References
1065
Section VI - Systems
1070
Chapter 29 - Lower Brainstem Regulation of Visceral, Cardiovascular, and Respiratory Function
1071
Introduction
1071
Classification of Brainstem Neuronal Groups
1072
Cardiovascular Function
1073
Respiratory Function
1077
Salivation, Swallowing and Gastrointestinal Function, Nausea, and Vomiting
1079
Lower Brainstem Regulation of Pituitary Vasopressin and ACTH Secretion
1081
Lower Brainstem Regulation of Pelvic Viscera
1081
Involvement of Putative Brainstem Autonomic and Respiratory Neurons in Human Neurodegenerative Disease
1082
References
1084
Chapter 30 - Somatosensory System
1087
Introduction
1088
Receptor Types and Afferent Pathways
1089
Relay Nuclei of the Medulla and Upper Spinal Cord
1097
Somatosensory Regions of the Midbrain
1098
Somatosensory Thalamus
1099
Anterior Parietal Cortex
1102
Somatosensory Cortex of the Lateral (Sylvian) Sulcus Including Insula
1108
Posterior Parietal Cortex
1110
Somatosensory Cortex of the Medial Wall: The Supplementary Sensory Area and Cingulate Cortex
1114
References
1114
Chapter 31 - Trigeminal Sensory System
1123
Introduction
1123
Receptors and their Innervation
1124
Trigeminal Nerves, Ganglion, and Root
1129
Brainstem Trigeminal Sensory Nuclei
1131
Pain Perception in the Trigeminal Pathway
1136
Thalamic Sites for Trigeminal Somatic Sensations
1141
Cranial Somatosensory Cortex
1143
Plasticity of Trigeminal Responses
1146
References
1147
Chapter 32 - Pain System
1157
Nociceptors
1158
Pain Transmission Neurons and Pathways
1168
Descending Pain Modulatory Systems
1177
Brain Structures Involved in Pain Perception and Integration
1179
Summary and Conclusions
1185
References
1187
Chapter 33 - Gustatory System
1200
Introduction
1200
Gustatory Apparatus and Peripheral Innervation
1201
The Central Nervous System
1202
Further Gustatory Processing
1223
Summary
1223
References
1224
Chapter 34 - The Olfactory System
1232
Introduction
1232
The Olfactory System
1233
Olfactory Mucosa
1234
The Vomeronasal Organ
1237
Olfactory Bulb
1237
Primary Olfactory Cortex
1238
Piriform Cortex
1239
Accessory Olfactory Cortical Areas
1242
Olfactory Projections Beyond the Primary Olfactory Cortex
1243
Human Imaging of Olfactory Sensory Activity
1245
References
1248
Chapter 35 - The Vestibular System
1252
Introduction
1252
Regional Anatomy of the Vestibular System
1253
Systems Anatomy
1269
References
1276
Chapter 36 - Auditory System
1283
Sensory Organ and Cochlear Nerve
1283
Brainstem
1286
Auditory Cortex
1295
Connectional Structure of the Auditory System
1302
Structural Asymmetry and Functional Lateralization
1306
The Concept of Wernicke’s Region
1307
References
1308
Chapter 37 - Visual System
1314
Central Visual Pathway
1315
Primary Visual Cortex
1322
Extrastriate Cortex
1326
References
1336
Chapter 38 - The Emotional Systems
1341
Emotions Defined, and an Anatomical Framework
1341
The Orbitofrontal Cortex
1343
The Amygdala
1356
The Pregenual Cingulate Cortex
1356
Beyond the Orbitofrontal Cortex to Choice Decision-Making
1357
References
1359
Chapter 39 - Cerebral Vascular System
1364
Introduction
1364
Anatomy of Cerebral Blood Vessels
1365
Anatomy of Spinal Cord Blood Vessels
1378
Vascular Innervation
1379
Mapping Cerebral Function with Blood Flow
1380
Global Responses of the Cerebral Circulation
1382
References
1383
Index
1388
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