The Human Nervous System - Human Nervous System

Front Cover

The Human Nervous System

Copyright

Dedication

Contents

Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Section I - Evolution and Development

Chapter 1 - Brain Evolution

The Human Brain as an Outlier

The Human Brain in Numbers

Cerebral Cortex and Connectivity

Concerted Expansion of Cerebral Cortex and Cerebellum

Human Brain Evolution: Comparison with Great Apes

Hominin Evolution: Estimates of Numbers of Brain Neurons in Prehistoric Homo

Human Brain Metabolism Revisited

Conclusion: Remarkable, Yet not Extraordinary

References

Chapter 2 - Development of the Peripheral Nervous System

Cranial Nerves

Somatic Peripheral Nervous System

Autonomic and Enteric Nervous System

References

Chapter 3 - Fetal Development of the Central Nervous System

Cerebral Cortex

Deep Telencephalic Nuclei

Diencephalon

Midbrain

Cerebellum and Pre-Cerebellar Nuclei

Pons and Medulla

Spinal Cord

References

Section II - Peripheral Nervous System and Spinal Cord

Chapter 4 - Peripheral Nervous System Topics

Introduction

History

Embryology

Dorsal Root Ganglion and the Pseudo-Unipolar Neurons

Schwann Cells, Satellite Cells, and Mast Cells

Nerve Fibers

Plexus

Proprioception and Endplates

Peripheral Nervous System Engineering

References

Chapter 5 - Peripheral Autonomic Pathways

General Organization of Autonomic Pathways

Cranial Autonomic Pathways

Sympathetic Pathways

Pelvic Autonomic Pathways

Enteric Plexuses

Adrenal Medulla and Paraganglia

Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 6 - Spinal Cord: Regional Anatomy, Cytoarchitecture and Chemoarchitecture

Cytoarchitecture of the Human Spinal Cord

Chemoarchitecture of the Human Spinal Cord

References

Chapter 7 - Spinal Cord: Connections

Primary Afferent Projections to the Spinal Cord

Propriospinal Pathways

Ascending Spinal Projections

Descending Spinal Projections

Descending Brainstem Projections

Projections from the Retroambiguus Nucleus to the Spinal Cord

Hypothalamic and Diencephalic Projections to the Spinal Cord

Coeruleospinal and Raphespinal Tracts

Other Descending Projections from the Trigeminal and Dorsal Column Nuclei

Cerebellospinal Projections

References

Section III - Brainstem And Cerebellum

Chapter 8 - Organization of Brainstem Nuclei

Abbreviations Used in the Figures

Autonomic Regulatory Centers

Reticular Formation

Tegmental Nuclei

Locus Coeruleus

Raphe Nuclei

Ventral Mesencephalic Tegmentum and Substantia Nigra

Cranial Motor Nuclei

Somatosensory System

Vestibular Nuclei

Auditory System

Visual System

Precerebellar Nuclei and Red Nucleus

Conclusion

References

Chapter 9 - Reticular Formation: Eye Movements, Gaze and Blinks

Introduction

Eye and Head Movements

Eyelid and Blink

References

Chapter 10 - Periaqueductal Gray

External Boundaries of the PAG

Internal Boundaries of the PAG

Chemoarchitecture of the Primate PAG

Connectivity of the Primate PAG

Functional Aspects

Conclusion

References

Chapter 11 - Raphe Nuclei

Divisions of the Raphe Nuclei

Connectivity

Functional Considerations

References

Chapter 12 - Locus Coeruleus

Introduction

Development and Topographical Organization

Morphology and Neurochemistry of LC Neurons

Functional Connectivity

Physiology and Behavior

LC Involvement in the Pathophysiology of Age-Related Neurologic Disease

Summary

References

Chapter 13 - Substantia Nigra, Ventral Tegmental Area, and Retrorubral Fields

Introduction

Substantia Nigra

Ventral Tegmental Area

Retrorubral Fields

Functional Connections

Conclusion

References

Chapter 14 - Brainstem Cholinergic Systems

Introduction

Cholinergic Neurons of the Brainstem Reticular Formation

Cytochemical Signatures

Axonal Targets

Postsynaptic Effects

Functional Affiliations

Summary and Conclusions

Anatomical Abbreviations

References

Chapter 15 - Cerebellum and Precerebellar Nuclei

Introduction

External Form and Subdivision of the Human Cerebellum

The Cerebellar Cortex

The Cerebellar Nuclei

The Cerebellar Peduncles

The Corticonuclear Projection

The Inferior Olive and the Olivocerebellar Projection

Zonal Organization of the Primate Cerebellar Cortex

Brainstem and Thalamo-Cortical Projections of the Cerebellar Nuclei Recurrent Cerebello-Olivary Loops

The Distribution of Mossy Fiber Systems

The Skeletomotor Cerebellum

The Oculomotor Cerebellum

Non-Motor Functions of the Cerebellum

Phylogenetic and Functional Subdivisions of the Cerebellum and their Somatotopical Organization

References

Section IV - Diencephalon, Basal Ganglia, Basal Forebrain And Amygdala

Chapter 16 - Hypothalamus

Cytoarchitecture of the Human Hypothalamus

Fiber Connections of the Hypothalamus

Functional Organization of the Hypothalamus

References

Chapter 17 - Hypophysis

Introduction

Anatomy of the Hypophysis

Imaging of the Hypophysis

Histology

Ultrastructure

References

Chapter 18 - Circumventricular Organs

General Characteristics of Circumventricular Organs

Subfornical Organ

Vascular Organ of the Lamina Terminalis (OVLT)

Median Eminence and Neurohypophysis

Pineal Gland

The Subcommissural Organ

Area Postrema

Choroid Plexus

References

Chapter 19 - Thalamus

Introduction

Superior Region

Medial Region

Lateral Region

Intralaminar Formation

Periventricular Formation

Posterior Region

Dedication and Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 20 - The Basal Ganglia

Introduction

Topography, Cytoarchitecture, and Basic Circuitry

Functional Basal Ganglia Connections

Functional Considerations

References

Chapter 21 - Sex Differences in the Forebrain

Introduction

Sex Hormone Receptors

Nucleus Basalis of Meynert (NBM) and Diagonal Band of Broca (DB)

Islands of Calleja (Insulae Terminalis)

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus of the Preoptic Area (SDN-POA)

Interstitial Nucleus of Anterior Hypothalamus INAH-3 and INAH-4, or Uncinate Nucleus

Anterior Commissure and Interthalamic Adhesion or Massa Intermedia

Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BST)

Supraoptic and Paraventricular Nucleus (SON, PVN)

The Ventromedial Nucleus (VMH

Infundibular Nucleus (Arcuate Nucleus), Subventricular Nucleus, and Median Eminence

Tuberomamilary Nucleus (TMN)

Corpora Mamillaria

Conclusions

Abbreviations used in the Figures

References

Chapter 22 - Amygdala

Definition of the Amygdala and Overview of Terminology

Topography

Anatomical Divisions

Abbreviations (including Figures and Tables)

References

Section V - Cortex

Chapter 23 - Architecture of the Cerebral Cortex

Principal Subdivisions of the Cerebral Cortex

Quantitative Aspects of the Cerebral Cortex and Gender Differences

Asymmetries in the Cerebral Cortex

Paleocortex

Archicortex

Isocortex

Cortical Maps of the Human Brain: Past, Present, Future

References

Chapter 24 - Hippocampal Formation

Gross Anatomical Features

Cytoarchitectonic Organization of the Hippocampal Formation

Hippocampal Connectivity

A Note on the Development of the Human Hippocampal Formation

Clinical Anatomy

Functional Considerations

References

Chapter 25 - Cingulate Cortex

Overview

The Four-Region Neurobiological Model: Circuitry

Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Autonomic Regulation and Emotion

Midcingulate Cortex

Posterior Cingulate Cortex

Retrosplenial Cortex Functions

Limbic Functions of Cingulate Subregions

Medial Surface Features

Flat Maps of Primate Medial Cortex

Cytology of Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Cytology of Midcingulate Cortex

Ectocallosal, Ectosplenial, and Retrosplenial Cortices

Posterior Cingulate Cortex

Caudomedial Subregion

The Cingulate Dysgranular Belt

Overview of Receptor Binding by Region and Layer

Some Comparative Features of Human and Monkey

Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Midcingulate Cortex

Retrosplenial Cortex

Posterior Cingulate Cortex

Is all Cortex in the Monkey Cingulate Sulcus Cingulate Cortex?

Perspectives on Human Imaging of Cingulate Cortex Structure and Functions

References

Chapter 26 - The Frontal Cortex

Sulcal and Gyral Morphology of the Frontal Cortex

Architectonic Organization

Corticocortical Connection Patterns

References

Chapter 27 - Motor Cortex*

Introduction

Macaque Motor Cortex

Human Motor Cortex

Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 28 - Posterior Parietal Cortex: Multimodal Association Cortex

Macroanatomy of Posterior Parietal Cortex

Architectonical Organization

Functional Segregation

Connectivity Pattern

Conclusion

References

Section VI - Systems

Chapter 29 - Lower Brainstem Regulation of Visceral, Cardiovascular, and Respiratory Function

Introduction

Classification of Brainstem Neuronal Groups

Cardiovascular Function

Respiratory Function

Salivation, Swallowing and Gastrointestinal Function, Nausea, and Vomiting

Lower Brainstem Regulation of Pituitary Vasopressin and ACTH Secretion

Lower Brainstem Regulation of Pelvic Viscera

Involvement of Putative Brainstem Autonomic and Respiratory Neurons in Human Neurodegenerative Disease

References

Chapter 30 - Somatosensory System

Introduction

Receptor Types and Afferent Pathways

Relay Nuclei of the Medulla and Upper Spinal Cord

Somatosensory Regions of the Midbrain

Somatosensory Thalamus

Anterior Parietal Cortex

Somatosensory Cortex of the Lateral (Sylvian) Sulcus Including Insula

Posterior Parietal Cortex

Somatosensory Cortex of the Medial Wall: The Supplementary Sensory Area and Cingulate Cortex

References

Chapter 31 - Trigeminal Sensory System

Introduction

Receptors and their Innervation

Trigeminal Nerves, Ganglion, and Root

Brainstem Trigeminal Sensory Nuclei

Pain Perception in the Trigeminal Pathway

Thalamic Sites for Trigeminal Somatic Sensations

Cranial Somatosensory Cortex

Plasticity of Trigeminal Responses

References

Chapter 32 - Pain System

Nociceptors

Pain Transmission Neurons and Pathways

Descending Pain Modulatory Systems

Brain Structures Involved in Pain Perception and Integration

Summary and Conclusions

References

Chapter 33 - Gustatory System

Introduction

Gustatory Apparatus and Peripheral Innervation

The Central Nervous System

Further Gustatory Processing

Summary

References

Chapter 34 - The Olfactory System

Introduction

The Olfactory System

Olfactory Mucosa

The Vomeronasal Organ

Olfactory Bulb

Primary Olfactory Cortex

Piriform Cortex

Accessory Olfactory Cortical Areas

Olfactory Projections Beyond the Primary Olfactory Cortex

Human Imaging of Olfactory Sensory Activity

References

Chapter 35 - The Vestibular System

Introduction

Regional Anatomy of the Vestibular System

Systems Anatomy

References

Chapter 36 - Auditory System

Sensory Organ and Cochlear Nerve

Brainstem

Auditory Cortex

Connectional Structure of the Auditory System

Structural Asymmetry and Functional Lateralization

The Concept of Wernicke’s Region

References

Chapter 37 - Visual System

Central Visual Pathway

Primary Visual Cortex

Extrastriate Cortex

References

Chapter 38 - The Emotional Systems

Emotions Defined, and an Anatomical Framework

The Orbitofrontal Cortex

The Amygdala

The Pregenual Cingulate Cortex

Beyond the Orbitofrontal Cortex to Choice Decision-Making

References

Chapter 39 - Cerebral Vascular System

Introduction

Anatomy of Cerebral Blood Vessels

Anatomy of Spinal Cord Blood Vessels

Vascular Innervation

Mapping Cerebral Function with Blood Flow

Global Responses of the Cerebral Circulation

References

Index