Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

Front Cover

Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

Copyright page

The Editors

Table of Contents

Subject Classification

Introduction

Contributors

Part I: Introduction to Applied Linguistics

Applied Linguistics

Introduction

Overview

History

Applied Linguistics Today

Bibliography

Critical Applied Linguistics

Doing Applied Linguistics Critically

The Critical in Applied Linguistics

Applied Linguistics and the Critical

Bibliography

Educational Linguistics

The Emergence of Educational Linguistics

Taking Stock of the Field

Future Directions

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Part II: Regional Studies

Africa

Multilingualism and the Role of the Excolonial Languages

Language Development: Some African Initiatives

Translation and Interpretation

Language Learning and Teaching

Language Learning and Teaching: African Languages

Academic Literacy Development in Higher Education

Literacy

Conclusion

Bibliography

Australasia and the Pacific

The Domain of Applied Linguistics in the Region

The World of Australasia and the Pacific

The World of Applied Linguistics in the Region

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

China

Introduction

Historical Background

Modern Linguistics in China

Linguistics Applied and Applied Linguistics in Contemporary China

Conclusion

Bibliography

Europe

Language Planning and Policy

Sociolinguistic Aspects of Multilingualism

Sociolinguistic Aspects of Multilingualism

Psycholinguistic Aspects of Multilingualism

Final Remarks

Bibliography

North America

A Brief History of Applied Linguistics in North America

Defining and Delimiting Applied Linguistics

Research in Applied Linguistics in North America

Critical Perspectives in Applied Linguistics

New Trends in Applied Linguistics in North America

Bibliography

South America

Some Publications in South America

Four Publications outside South America

The Path of Applied Linguistics in South America: The Shadow Metaphor

Final Remarks

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

South Asia

Introduction

Applied Linguistics in the Subcontinent

Multilingualism and Language-Related Concerns

Language Policies: Scheduled and Nonscheduled Languages

Language and Education

Languages in Contact

Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature

Computational Linguistics

Language Disorders

Problems in Translation

Conclusion

Bibliography

Southeast Asia

Applied Linguistics and the Region of Southeast Asia: Definitions

Southeast Asia as a Linguistic Region

From Nationalism to Nationism: The Adoption of National Languages

Language Acquisition Planning in Multilingual Societies

Language use in Multilingual Settings and the Question of Social Identity

English: Its Expanding Role and Varieties

English Language Teaching and Learning

Bilingualism in Multilingual Societies

Publications on Applied Linguistics in Southeast Asia

Bibliography

Part III: Language, Learners And Learning

Acquisition of Second Language Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax

Introduction

L2 Acquisition of Phonology

L2 Acquisition of Inflectional Morphology

L2 Acquisition of Derivational Morphology

L2 Acquisition of Syntax

Bibliography

Assessment of First Language Proficiency

Sociopolitical Issues in First Language Proficiency Testing

Functional and Processural Criteria for Assessing L1 Speaking, Listening, Writing, and Reading

Beyond the Four Modalities of Language

Integrated, Standard-Based Performance Assessment of L1 Proficiency

Implementation and Washback of L1 Proficiency Testing

Bibliography

Assessment of Second Language Proficiency

Introduction

Developments in Validity Theory

Evidence-Centered Design

Developing a Language Assessment System: An Example

Messick on Test Validation: The Social Dimension

Bibliography

Bilingual Lexicography

Introduction

A Brief History of Bilingual Lexicography

The Techniques of Modern Bilingual Lexicography

Working with Frameworks

Structure of a Bilingual Entry

Main Issues of Bilingual Lexicography

Directionality

Bilingual Dictionaries Today and Tomorrow

Bibliography

Endangered Languages

School-Based Programs

Outside of the Schools

Potential Difficulties

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Grammar

History

The Scope of Grammar Teaching

The Aims and Methods of Grammar Teaching

Evaluating the Success of Grammar Teaching

Bibliography

Immigrant Languages

Assimilation versus Pluralism

Language as a Right, a Resource, or a Problem

Minority and Majority Languages in Education

Bibliography

Interlanguage

Interlanguage

The Interlanguage Hypothesis

Development of the Interlanguage Hypothesis to the Early 1990s

Bibliography

Language Assessment Standards

Standards as the Goal

Setting Standards

Measuring and Reporting Standards

Bibliography

Languages for Specific Purposes

Defining the Object

Basic Distinctions: Relations between Communicators

Traditional Approaches

Recent Trends for the Development of the Discipline

Bibliography

Learning Sign Language as a Second Language

Learning Two Languages in Infancy

Learning Two Languages Sequentially

Delayed L1 Learning and L2 Learning

Bibliography

Learners’ Dictionaries

Main Features of the MLDSummary

In More Detail

The Impact of Corpora

Signs of Change

Bibliography

OtheReferences

Listening in a Second Language

Introduction

Bottom-up Interpretation

Interpretation and Inference

The Context of Utterance

Listening as 'Input' to Second Language Learning

Bibliography

Motivation and Attitudes in Second Language Learning

Motivation Defined

Attitudes Defined

Theoretical Conceptualizations of Motivation in Second Language Learning

Issues

Bibliography

Pedagogical Grammars for Second Language Learning

Types of Grammars

Characteristics of Pedagogical Grammars

Pedagogical Grammar in Language Education

Conclusion

Bibliography

Reading in a Second Language

Introduction

Current State of Theory

Revisiting L1/L2 Relationships: the Transfer of Literacy and Language Knowledge

Transferring Knowledge About Language Elements

Transferring Language Elements: Grammar and Vocabulary

Contextual Variables

Conclusion

Bibliography

Second Language Attrition

Introduction

Theoretical Models

Extralinguistic Factors

Linguistic Levels

Research Designs

Conclusion

Bibliography

Second Language Corpus Studies

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Second Language Discourse Studies

Discourse and SLA

Language Identity

Language Socialization

Sociocultural Theory

Bibliography

Learning Second Language Vocabulary

Learning Burden

Word Form

Word Meaning

Word Use

Idioms

Learning Conditions

Deliberate and Incidental Learning

Involvement Load

Negotiation

Interference

Massed versus Spaced Learning

First Language Definitions

Bibliography

Sign Language Acquisition

Bibliography

Speaking in a Second Language

Introduction

Models and Descriptions of Second Language Speaking

Areas of Growing Influence and Debate in the Area of Second Language Speaking

Bibliography

Third Language Acquisition

Introduction. The Spread of Third Language Acquisition: Sociolinguistic Perspectives

Differences between Second and Third Language Acquisition

Third Language Acquisition Research

Multilingual Competence and the Multilingual Mind

Contribution of Third Language Acquisition Research to Applied Linguistics

Bibliography

Relevant Website

Variation in Second Language Acquisition

The L2 Grammar

The Role of the Interfaces

Syntactic Processing in the Second Language

Conclusion

Bibliography

Writing in a Second Language

Introduction

History

Current Status

Future Directions

Bibliography

Part IV: Language, Teachers And Education

Bilingual Education

Introduction

Types of Bilingual Education

Immersion Bilingual Education

Heritage Language Bilingual Education

Dual Language Bilingual Education

Bilingual Education and Politics

Language Revitalization through Bilingual Education

The Advantages of 'Strong' Forms of Bilingual Education

The Effectiveness of Bilingual Education

The English Language and Bilingual Education

The Limitations of Bilingual Education

Bibliography

Classroom Talk

Bibliography

Communicative Language Teaching

Linguistic Theory and Classroom Practice

Interpretations of CLT

CLT in the 21st Century

Bibliography

Computer-Assisted Language Education

A Definition of CALL

A Brief History of CALL

CALL Typology

The Future of CALL

Professional CALL Associations

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Content Teaching and Learning

Second Language Education

Foreign Language Programs

Bilingual Programs

Instructional Practices

Teacher Preparation

Future Directions and Research

Bibliography

Culture in Language Teaching

The Cultural Dimensions of Language Study

New Ways of Integrating Language, Culture, History, and Identity

Bibliography

Education in a Former Colonial Language

Colonization

Political Goals of Ex-colonies

Colonization and Educational Language Policy

Conclusion

Bibliography

Internet and Language Education

History of the Internet

The Internet as Classroom

Research and Resources: The Internet as Tool

Activities: The Internet as Tutor

Equality, Democracy, and the Internet

Future

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Language Awareness

Bibliography

Language Education of the Deaf

Methods

Natural Language of Deaf Children

The Situation Today

Do the Methods Work?

Bibliography

Languages in Tertiary Education

Languages as Medium of Tertiary-Level Teaching: Overview

Official Language and Medium of Teaching

Differences According to Disciplines and Levels of Teaching

Recent Changes in the Role of English

Problems and Attempts at Alleviation

Foreign Language Requirements

Bibliography

Minority Language Education

Definitions and Purposes

Traditions, Continuities, Possibilities, and Controversies

Power-Related Dimensions of Minority Languages and Their Access to Education

Organization of Minority Language Education around the World

Conclusion

Bibliography

Nonnative Speaker Teachers

Introduction

Definitions of Native and Non-native Speakers

Non-native English-Speaking Teachers' Perceptions of Their Status and Roles

Professional Development of Non-native English-Speaking Teachers

Conclusion

Bibliography

Oracy Education

Bibliography

Pedagogy of Languages for Specific Purposes

Specific Features of Pedagogical Contexts

Current Trends

Technological Influences

Evaluation of Curriculum and Teaching

Student Assessment

Conclusion

Bibliography

Politics of Teaching

Introduction

The Politics of Mainstream Applied Linguistics

The Politics of Critical Applied Linguistics

Conclusion

Bibliography

Reading and Multiliteracy

Bibliography

Remediation of Language Disorders in Children

Bibliography

Second Language Curriculum Development

Introduction

Underpinnings of Curriculum

Contexts of Curriculum

Organization of Curriculum

Information Gathering for Curriculum

Key Questions in Curriculum

Outcomes of Curriculum

Conclusion

Bibliography

Second and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching

Learning and Learners

Teaching

Conclusion

Bibliography

Second Language Teacher Preparation

History and Developments

SL Teacher Education: Defining the Knowledge Base

Principles for Designing and Evaluating Teacher Education Programs

Models of Teacher Education Environments

Perspectives and Developments

Bibliography

Second Language Teaching Technologies

Key Developments in the Last Decade

Professional Factors That Affect Technology and Language Learning

The Future

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Teacher Preparation

The Origins of Teacher Education

The Emergence of Language Teacher Education

Language Teacher Education Since the 1960s

Bibliography

Teaching of Minority Languages

Focus and Nomenclature

Crossnational Perspectives on Community Language Teaching

Beyond Bilingualism: Dealing with Multilingualism at School

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Traditions in Second Language Teaching

Introduction

Early Greek Education

Roman Education

Education in the Medieval Age

The Rise of Universities

Revival of Classical Studies

Rise of the Vernacular Languages

Toward the Modern Era

The Lesson of Tradition

Bibliography

Translation Pedagogy

Introduction: From Pedagogical Translation to Translation Pedagogy

The Setting for Learning: Translator Education Programs

The Emergence of Translation Pedagogy - Toward the Development of Translator Competence

Conclusion

Bibliography

Relevant Website

Vocabulary Program for Second or Foreign Learners

What Vocabulary?

How Should Words Be Dealt With?

Learning Vocabulary Through Listening

Learning Vocabulary Through Reading

Deliberate Vocabulary Learning

Learning Vocabulary Through Speaking

Learning Vocabulary Through Writing

Fluency Development

Monitoring and Encouraging Progress

Encouraging Autonomy

Principles of Vocabulary Learning and Teaching

Bibliography

Part V: Applied Sociolinguistics

Bilingualism and Second Language Learning

Introduction

Key Concepts

Defining and Measuring Bilingualism

Patterns and Mechanisms in Bilinglual Language Development

Bilingual Education: Additive vs. Subtractive Bilingualism

Socio-Psychological Factors

Effects of Bilingualism

Conclusions

Bibliography

Communicative Competence

A Key Concept in an Emerging Sociolinguistic Tradition

Communicative Competence in Other Domains

Re-examining Communicative Competence

Bibliography

Correctness and Purism

Definitions: Correctness and Purism

The Appropriateness Model of Linguistic Variation

What is a Standard Variety?

Spoken and Written Language

Multilingualism

Policy vs. Practice

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Educational Failure

Introduction

The Nature of Group Difference

The Language Dimension

Language Attitudes

Educational Responses to Disadvantage

A Decade On

Bibliography

Foreign Language Teaching Policy

Defining Foreign Languages

Foreign Language Policy Decisions

Categories of Countries by Linguistic Context

Future Developments

Bibliography

Gender in Language Education

Recurrent Debates about Language, Education, and Gender

Challenges Ahead

Bibliography

Languages of Wider Communication

World Language

International Language

Languages of Wider Communication

Bibliography

Language Policy in Multilingual Educational Contexts

Global Distribution of Multilingualism

Need for Language Policy and Planning

Components of Language Policy

Language Policies in Nation-States

Language Policy beyond the Nation-State

Language Policies at the International Level

Linguistic Human Rights

Typologies and Models of Multilingual Education

Immersion

Transitional Bilingual Education

Weak Linkages between Language Policy and Planning

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Language Revival

Schools and Language Revival Efforts

Differing Contexts

Pedagogy for Language Revitalization

Curriculum and Language Revival

Communicative Language Teaching and L-[r]

Different Expectations from Pedagogy

Final Considerations: Language Revitalization and Instructed Language Acquisition

Bibliography

Lingua Francas as Second Languages

Lingua Francas and Multilingual Societies

Lingua Francas and the Multilingual Individual

International Lingua Franca Interactions

Lingua Francas and Second Language Teaching

Outlook: Current Research Trends

Bibliography

Linguistic Imperialism

Bibliography

Religion and Literacy

Bibliography

Multilingual Societies and Language Education

Introduction

Categorizing Education in Multilingual Societies

Debates and Research on Bilingual Programs

Bibliography

Native Speaker

Bibliography

Nonstandard Language

Historical Background

United Nations Formulation

Supporting Grounds

Definitional Problem

Various Models

Experimental Results

Resistance

Community Response

Language Rights and Pedagogical Rationale

Bibliography

Second Language Identity

The Historical Context

Theoretical Influences

Research Trajectories

Conclusion

Bibliography

Second Language Socialization

Second Language Socialization

Background and Key Concepts

Foci and Methodologies

Overview of Second Language Socialization Research

Conclusion

Bibliography

Standard Language

Standards and Conventions in Mother Tongues

What Is Standard?

Schools and Standard Language

Supporting Language Development

Bibliography

World Englishes

Spread and Stratification

Concentric Circle Model

World Englishes Speech Communities

Process of Nativization and Englishization

Models of Description

Conceptual Myths

Constructing Identities of Englishes

World Englishes and Conceptual Frameworks

Literary Creativity, Canonicity, and World Englishes

The Pandora’s Box and World Englishes

Bibliography

Part VI: Biographies

Brown, Gillian

Bibliography

Catford, John C. (1917-2009)

Bibliography

Ferguson, Charles A. (1921-1998)

Bibliography

Fries, Charles Carpenter (1887-1967)

Bibliography

Hall, Robert A., Jr. (1911-1987)

Bibliograpy

Hill, Archibald A. (1902-1992)

Bibliography

Hornby, Albert Sidney (1898-1978)

Bibilography

Lado, Robert (1915-1995)

Bibliography

Nida, Eugene Albert (b. 1914)

Bibliography

Palmer, Harold Edward (1877-1949)

Bibliography

Passy, Paul Eacute douard (1859-1940)

Bibliography

Quirk, Professor The Lord Charles Randolph (b. 1920)

Bibliography

Relevant Websites

Ratke, Wolfgang (1571-1635)

Bibliography

Richards, Ivor Armstrong (1893-1979)

Bibliography

Smith, Henry Lee (1913-1972)

Bibliography

Twaddell, William Freeman (1906-1982)

Bibliography

Vieumltor, Wilhelm (1850-1918)

Bibliography

Subject Index