Exploring Occupant Behavior in Buildings - Methods and Challenges

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Contents

Glossary

1 Introduction

Abstract

2 Occupancy and Occupants’ Actions

Abstract

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Categorization of Occupants’ Actions

2.3 Potential Triggers and Contextual Factors Influencing Occupant Behavior in a Building

2.4 Literature Review of Relationship Between Action Types and Influencing Factors

2.5 Conclusion

References

3 Designing Research

Abstract

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Why Do the Research (Research Aims and Questions)

3.3 Identifying the Concepts to Measure and How They Link Together (Theory)

3.3.1 Concepts

3.3.2 One to One Relationships (Links)

3.3.3 One to Many Relationships (Hierarchies)

3.4 Units of Analysis, Populations, and Scope

3.4.1 Units of Analysis

3.4.2 Population of Interest and Scope

3.4.3 Descriptive or Inferential Statistics

3.4.4 Required Precision

3.5 Sampling and Sample Size

3.5.1 Sample Frames

3.5.2 Sampling Strategies

3.5.3 Spatial Sampling

3.5.4 Temporal Sampling

3.5.5 Sample Size Calculations

3.5.6 External Validity

3.5.7 An Illustrative Example of Sample Size Calculations

3.5.8 Internal Validity

3.5.9 Dropouts and Response Rates

3.6 How to Measure Concepts (Methods)

3.6.1 Concepts and Constructs

3.6.2 Operationalizing Constructs into Measurands

3.6.3 Latent Variables

3.6.4 Instruments

3.6.5 Quantifying Uncertainty

3.7 How to Measure Relationships (Research Design)

3.7.1 Descriptive (Correlational) Designs

3.7.2 Case Studies

3.7.3 Cross-Sectional Design

3.7.4 Longitudinal Surveys

3.7.5 Causative (Experimental) Designs

3.8 Pre-analysis Plans

3.9 Conclusion

References

4 Sensing and Data Acquisition

Abstract

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Sensing System Performance Metrics

4.3 Occupant Behavior and Presence Sensing

4.3.1 State-of-the-Art of Occupant Sensing Technologies

4.3.2 Human-in-the-Loop

4.3.3 Consumption Sensing

4.4 Occupant Data Acquisition

4.4.1 Manual Data Storage

4.4.2 Wireless Network

4.4.3 Gateway or Building Automation System

4.4.4 Internet-Enabled Sensors

4.5 Other Related Sensing Technologies

4.5.1 Indoor Environmental Sensing

4.5.2 Outdoor Environmental Sensing

4.6 Conclusion

References

5 Introduction to Occupant Research Approaches

Abstract

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Primary Occupant Research Approaches

5.3 Objective Comparison of Approaches

5.4 Mixed Methods Research Design

5.5 Conclusion

References

6 In Situ Approaches to Studying Occupants

Abstract

6.1 Introduction

6.2 In Situ Monitoring Approaches

6.3 Sensors and Data Acquisition Architecture: Practical Considerations

6.3.1 Building Automation Systems

6.3.2 Adding Additional Sensors to BASs

6.3.3 Obtaining BAS Data

6.3.4 New Sensor Networks

6.3.5 Distributed Stand-Alone Sensors and Data Loggers

6.3.6 Image-Based Sensing for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies

6.3.7 Virtual Sensors for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies

6.3.8 Future Sensing Technologies for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies

6.4 Practical and Methodological in Situ Monitoring Challenges

6.4.1 Sensor Placement and Obstruction

6.4.2 Ground Truths and Validation of Sensor Readings

6.4.3 Limited Access to Spaces

6.4.4 Monitoring Spaces with Multiple Occupants

6.4.5 Hawthorne Effect

6.4.6 Participant Recruitment

6.4.7 Ethical Obligations and Implications of Performing in Situ Monitoring

6.5 Qualitative Aspects of in Situ Monitoring

6.6 Use of Surveys to Complement Monitoring

6.7 Conclusion

References

7 Laboratory Approaches to Studying Occupants

Abstract

7.1 Laboratories in Indoor Environmental Quality Research

7.2 Examples of Typical Laboratory Designs and Their Technical Equipment

7.2.1 International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy (ICIEE), Technical University of Denmark, Denmark

7.2.2 Controlled Environmental Chamber, Center for the Built Environment (CBE); University of California at Berkeley, USA

7.2.3 Indoor Environmental Quality Laboratory (IEQ Lab), University of Sydney, Australia

7.2.4 Laboratory for Occupant Behavior, Satisfaction, Thermal Comfort and Environmental Research (LOBSTER), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany

7.2.5 SinBerBEST Test Bed, CREATE Tower, Berkeley Education Alliance for Research in Singapore (BEARS) Limited, Singapore

7.2.6 Respiration Chambers, Metabolic Research Unit Maastricht (MRUM), University of Maastricht, the Netherlands

7.2.7 Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, E.ON Energy Research Center (E.ON ERC), RWTH Aachen University, Germany

7.2.8 The ZEB Living Laboratory at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) and SINTEF, Norway

7.2.9 Indoor Environmental Laboratories at the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP), Germany

7.2.10 Flight Test Facilities, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP) and Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, RWTH Aachen University; Germany

7.3 Indoor Climate in Labs—Technical Services, Control, Sensors

7.3.1 Conditioning of Labs

7.3.2 Solar Incident, Daylight and Acoustics in Test Chambers

7.3.3 Temperature Control in the Experimental Environment

7.3.4 Data Acquisition and Sensing Indoor Environmental Quantities

7.4 Sensors for Personalized Monitoring

7.4.1 Measuring Skin and Body Temperature

7.4.2 Measuring the Skin Wettedness

7.4.3 View Tracking, Measuring Hormone Levels and Monitoring Movements

7.5 Lab Studies on Occupant Behavior and Considerations with Regard to Lab Design and Equipment

7.5.1 Options for Experimental Settings

7.5.2 Recommendations for Lab Design

7.6 Influencing Factors Driving Occupant’s Behavior and Their Impact on Experimental Design

7.7 Conclusion

References

8 Survey and Interview Approaches to Studying Occupants

Abstract

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Constructing the Survey

8.2.1 Before Designing the Survey

8.3 Developing Questions and Constructing the Survey Tool

8.3.1 Writing Survey Questions

8.3.2 Types of Questions

8.3.3 Criteria for Examining Each Survey Question

8.3.4 Questionnaire Structure

8.3.5 Ordering Questions

8.4 Survey Instrument Assessment

8.4.1 Reliability & Validity

8.4.2 Types of Survey Errors

8.4.3 Pre-testing and Pilot Studies

8.5 Participant Selection and Sample Design

8.5.1 Alternative Sampling Strategies in Building Research

8.5.2 Sample Size

8.6 Available Tools for Survey Delivery

8.7 Interviews

8.7.1 Interview Formats

8.7.2 Types of Interviews

8.7.3 Conducting the Interview

8.8 Survey Stories and Lessons Learned in Occupant Behavioral Research

8.8.1 Field Study of Thermal Comfort and Occupant Satisfaction in Canadian Condominiums

8.8.2 Energy Consumption in Residential Buildings and Occupants’ Behavior. An Investigation in Mediterranean Climatic Conditions

8.8.3 On the Behavioral Effects of Residential Electricity Submetering in a Heating Season

8.8.4 A Norwegian Survey Story: The Use of Qualitative Methods

8.8.5 Occupants’ Behavior Patterns for Air-Conditioning, Windows, and Lighting

8.9 Additional Considerations for Occupant Behavior-Related Surveys

8.9.1 Informed Consent for Online Surveys

8.9.2 Example of Informed Consent Statement for Survey Study (Day 2014)

8.10 Conclusion

References

9 Validation and Ground Truths

Abstract

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Basic Concepts of Measurement Quality

9.2.1 Basic Terms of Measurement Quality Performance

9.2.2 Validation and Verification of Measurement Methods

9.2.3 Ground Truth in Measurements

9.3 Measurement of Occupancy and Occupant Behavior

9.3.1 Physically Sensed Variables

9.3.2 Reported Variables

9.4 Verification and Validation of Measurement Methods

9.4.1 Verification of Measurement Methods

9.4.2 Validation of Measurement Methods

9.4.3 Measurement Uncertainties

9.5 Constructing Ground Truth Datasets

9.5.1 Validation of Occupant Behavior Measurement

9.5.2 Appropriateness, Robustness, and Openness

9.6 Conclusion

References

10 Structured Building Data Management: Ontologies, Queries, and Platforms

Abstract

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Outline of an Ontology for Building Monitoring

10.2.1 General Categories

10.2.1.1 Occupants

10.2.1.2 Indoor Environmental Conditions

10.2.1.3 External Environmental Conditions

10.2.1.4 Control Systems and Devices

10.2.1.5 Equipment

10.2.1.6 Energy

10.2.2 The Structure of Monitored Data

10.2.2.1 Values

10.2.2.2 Actors

10.2.2.3 Data Sources

10.2.3 Expressions of the Ontology for Multiple Data Categories

10.3 Data Processing and Typical Queries

10.3.1 Periodic Raw Data

10.3.2 Event Related Raw Data

10.3.3 Interval Data from BAS (Building Automation System)-Integrated Sensors or Data Loggers

10.3.4 Practical Examples of Building Monitored Data Processing

10.3.4.1 Generation of Occupancy Data from PIR-Motion Raw Sensor Data

10.3.4.2 Generation of Presence Probability Profiles

10.3.4.3 Generation of Boolean Daily Occupancy Profiles

10.3.4.4 Use of Electric Energy Meter Data to Determine Usage Profiles

10.4 Building Monitoring Repositories and Prototypical Implementations

10.4.1 System Design

10.4.2 Data Repositories

10.4.2.1 MySQL Data Repository

10.4.2.2 Cassandra Data Repository

10.4.3 Prototypical Implementation—Monitoring System Toolkit (MOST)

10.4.4 Module Overview

10.4.5 Virtual Sensor Implementation

10.5 Conclusion

References

11 Ethics and Privacy

Abstract

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Institutions Involved in Ethical Review Processes

11.3 Review Categories

11.3.1 Exemption

11.3.2 Expedited Review

11.4 Recruitment of Participants

11.4.1 Selection of Participants

11.4.2 Vulnerable Populations

11.5 Risks and Anticipated Benefits

11.5.1 Identification of Risks

11.5.2 Minimal Risk

11.5.3 Hard and Soft Impacts

11.5.4 Risk Issues Specific to Occupant Behavior Research

11.5.5 Anticipated Benefits

11.6 Privacy and Confidentiality

11.6.1 Anonymous Data

11.6.2 Privacy in the Use of Personally Identifiable Records

11.6.3 Potential Steps to Protect Participants’ Privacy

11.6.4 Data Storage, Processing, and Sharing

11.7 Informed Consent

11.8 Submission Procedures for Ethics

11.9 Debriefing

11.10 Multiple-Site and Cross-Country Studies

11.11 Tips for Improving Interactions with Ethics Committee

11.12 Internet Research Ethics

11.13 Conclusion

References

12 Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook

Abstract

12.1 Research Needs

12.2 Future Outlook