Controlling the Morphology of Polymers - Multiple Scales of Structure and Processing

Preface

Contents

Chapter 1: Scales of Structure in Polymers

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Types of Bonds

1.3 Types of Polymers

1.4 Types of Materials

1.4.1 Thermoplastics

1.4.2 Thermosets

1.4.3 Composites, Micro-Fillers, Nano-Fillers

1.5 Types of Order

1.5.1 Crystalline

1.5.2 Liquid Crystalline

1.5.3 Amorphous

1.5.4 Blends and Mixtures

1.6 Structuring Processes

1.6.1 Crystallization

1.6.1.1 Lamellae to Spherulites

1.6.1.2 Crystal Growth Rates

1.6.1.3 Primary and Secondary Nucleation

1.6.1.4 Folding Theories

1.6.1.5 Computer Modelling Theories

1.6.1.6 The Bell Curve

1.6.1.7 Nucleation

1.6.1.8 Crystallization in Practice

1.6.1.9 Crystallization and Orientation

1.6.2 Microphase Separation and Block Copolymers (BCP)

1.6.2.1 Photonic Crystals

1.6.2.2 Micelles

1.6.3 Phase Separation Mixtures

1.6.4 Phase Separation on Reaction

1.7 Large-Scale Processes

1.8 Summary

References

Chapter 2: Evaluating Scales of Structures

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Indirect Methods

2.2.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry

2.2.1.1 Reorganization and `Morphological Melting´

2.2.1.2 Thermal Fractionation

2.2.2 Dynamics

2.2.3 Spectroscopy

2.3 Imaging Methods

2.3.1 Light Microscopy

2.3.1.1 Polarized Optical Microscopy (POM)

2.3.1.2 Use of Tint Plates

2.3.1.3 Circularly Polarized Light

2.3.1.4 Phase Contrast Microscopy

2.3.1.5 Interference Microscopy (Nomarski)

2.3.1.6 Ancillary Techniques

2.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy

2.3.2.1 Contrast

2.3.2.2 Sandwiching and Embedding Techniques

2.3.3 Etching

2.3.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy

2.3.4.1 Inducing Contrast

2.3.5 Atomic Force Microscopy

2.4 Scattering Methods

2.4.1 X-Ray Scattering

2.4.1.1 Small Angle X-Ray Scattering

2.4.1.2 Wide Angle X-Ray Scattering

2.4.1.3 SAXS/WAXS Instruments

2.4.2 Neutron Scattering

2.4.2.1 Small Angle Neutron Scattering

2.4.2.2 Broad Q Neutron Diffraction

2.4.2.3 Neutron Scattering Instruments

2.5 Summary

References

Chapter 3: Crystallization in Nanocomposites

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Templating

3.2.1 Linear Nucleation

3.3 Crystallization and Flow

3.4 Nanoparticles

3.4.1 Introduction

3.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes

3.4.3 Nanoclay

3.5 Nanocomposites with Carbon Nanotubes

3.5.1 Nanocomposites with Halloysites

3.5.2 Nanocomposites with Clay Platelets

3.5.3 Nanocomposites with Graphene

3.5.4 Summary

References

Chapter 4: Theoretical Aspects of Polymer Crystallization

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Thermodynamics of Polymer Crystallization

4.2.1 Basic Concepts

4.2.2 Statistical Thermodynamics of Polymer Crystallization

4.2.3 Properties of Equilibrium Melting Points

4.2.3.1 Interaction Parameters

4.2.3.2 Molecular Weights

4.2.3.3 Comonomer Contents in Random Copolymers

4.2.4 Phase Diagrams of Polymer Solutions

4.3 Kinetics of Polymer Crystallization

4.3.1 Crystal Nucleation

4.3.2 Crystal Growth

4.3.2.1 Secondary Nucleation Models

4.3.2.2 Other Non-nucleation Models

4.3.3 Crystal Annealing

4.4 Summary

References

Chapter 5: Controlling Morphology Using Low Molar Mass Nucleators

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Organic Gelators

5.3 Synthesis of Sorbitol Derivatives

5.4 DBS in Polymers

5.5 DBS Directing Crystallisation

5.6 Model of Directed Crystallisation

5.7 Summary

References

Chapter 6: Crystallization in Nanoparticles

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Generation of Polymer Nanoparticles

6.3 Modification of the Crystalline Morphology by Confinement into Nanoparticles

6.3.1 Crystallization in Nanoparticles

6.3.2 From Polymer Nanoparticles to Polymer Nanocrystals

6.4 Summary

6.5 Methods

Bibliography

Chapter 7: Controlling Morphology in 3D Printing

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Light-Based Technologies

7.1.2 Print-Based Technologies

7.1.3 Extrusion-Based Technologies: Melt or Solution

7.1.3.1 Fused Deposition Modelling/Fused Filament Fabrication

7.2 FDM/FFF Feedstock Materials

7.3 Parameters in FDM/FFF 3D Printers

7.3.1 Surface

7.3.1.1 Layer Thickness

7.3.1.2 Part Orientation

7.3.2 Layer and Cross-Section

7.3.2.1 Gap Between Filaments

7.3.2.2 Layer Patterning

7.3.2.3 Materials Properties

7.3.3 Filaments

7.4 Case Study 1: Feedstock Material

7.5 Case Study 2: Deposition Speed

7.6 Case Study 3: Feed Roller Velocity/Screw Rotation Velocity

7.7 Case Study 4: Extrusion Temperature

7.8 Summary

References

Chapter 8: Electrically Conductive Polymer Nanocomposites

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Percolation Theory

8.2.1 Electrical Conductivity Mechanisms

8.3 Filler Effects on Polymer Nanocomposites

8.3.1 Aspect Ratio

8.3.2 Polydispersity

8.3.3 Orientation

8.3.4 Dispersion and Filler Localisation

8.3.5 Rheology and Mechanical Properties

8.3.6 Crystallisation and Morphology

8.4 Summary

References

Chapter 9: Nanodielectrics: The Role of Structure in Determining Electrical Properties

9.1 Introduction

9.1.1 Nanotechnology

9.1.2 Nanocomposites: Scales of Structure

9.2 Nanodielectric Properties

9.2.1 Surface Electrical Properties of Nanodielectrics

9.2.1.1 Resistance to Corona and Surface Discharges

9.2.1.2 Degradation of Nanocomposites: Mechanisms

9.2.2 Bulk Electrical Properties of Nanodielectrics

9.2.2.1 Breakdown Strength

9.2.2.2 Permittivity

9.2.3 Nanoparticles as Structural Modifiers

9.3 Theories and Models

9.3.1 Miscibility and Dispersion

9.3.2 Interfaces and Interphases

9.3.3 From Composition to Properties

9.4 Advanced Dielectrics Through Morphological Design

9.4.1 Polyethylene Blends

9.4.2 Polypropylene Blends

9.5 Summary

References

Chapter 10: Block Copolymers and Photonic Band Gap Materials

10.1 Introduction

10.1.1 Phase Behaviour of Block Copolymers

10.2 Photonic Band Gap Materials

10.3 Synthesis of Block Copolymers

10.3.1 Characterisation of Photonic Band Gap Materials

10.3.2 Extending to Longer Wavelengths

10.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Relationship Between Molecular Configuration and Stress-Induced Phase Transitions

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Isotactic Polypropylene Samples

11.3 Structural Analysis and Mechanical Properties

11.4 Optical and Atomic Force Microscopy

11.5 Stress-Induced Phase Transitions in Unoriented Films

11.6 Structural Analysis at Microscopic Length Scale

11.7 Structural Analysis at Lamellar Length Scale

11.8 Determination of Damage Effect

11.9 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 12: Summary

References

Index