PART II-AGRICULTURE AND PASTURAGE.SECTION I-LAWS AND OPERATIONS.LAWS.

1. IT APPEARED TO THE Divine Wisdom, that the agricultural life was best suited to maintain the Israelites in that particular position in which it was designed that they should be placed. A country well adapted to agriculture was, therefore, given to them; and laws were framed to encourage and to render necessary the culture of the ground, and, in some degree, to discourage other pursuits. That all might find an interest in the culture of the soil, everyone had some land to cultivate. A plot of ground was given to every head of a family, which he had full power to cultivate as he pleased, and to transmit to his heirs. The difficulty was not in acquiring, but in alienating a possession in land. NO one could dispossess himself of his lands for a longer time than to the next ensuing jubilee, which occurred every fifty years; and if he disposed of his land for this limited period, himself, or his nearest relative, always retained the right of resuming possession, by paying the calculated value of the unexpired term up to the year of jubilee. As, by the original constitution, God himself was the political head of the state, and the sovereign proprietor of the soil, the land, thus secured to the heirs of the first proprietors, was exempt from any other rent-charges than the tithes and first-fruits which were offered to Him, and used by His servants—the priests and Lévites (Lev. xxvii. 30; Deut. xii. 17-19; xiv. 22-29). As fields are not divided by hedges in the east, the stones which marked the boundaries of lands (land-marks) were rendered inviolable by a solemn curse against whoever should remove them (Deut. xix. 14). All the inhabitants, except the priests and Lévites, were considered by the laws, and were, for the most part, in fact, agriculturists, whether they dwelt in the country or in towns. This legislation had due effect; for agriculture was long held in high honour, and persons of condition did not disdain to put their hand to the plough (1 Sam. xi. 5, 7; 1 Kings xix. 19; 2 Chron. xxvi. 10). As luxury increased, this esteem for agriculture declined; especially after the Captivity, when many turned their attention towards merchandise and the mechanic arts.

2.The Fallow Year.—That the Israelites might exercise trust in their Divine King; that they might be trained to habits of economy and foresight; and that the soil might not be exhausted, it was ordered that every seventh year should be a sabbath of rest to the land. There was to be no sowing nor reaping, no pruning of vines nor olives, no vintage nor gathering of fruits; and whatever grew of itself was to be left to the poor, the stranger, and the beasts of the field (Lev. xxv. 1-7; Deut. xv. 1-10). But such an observance required more faith than the Israelites were prepared to exercise; it was for a long time utterly neglected (Lev. xxvi. 34, 35; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21), but after the Captivity was more observed.

3.Fertilization.—The soil of Palestine is, for the most part, very fertile, when the rains and dews of autumn and spring are not withheld. Water is the great fertilizing agent; and therefore the ancient inhabitants were able, in’ some parts, to avert the aridity which the summer droughts occasioned, and to keep up a garden-like verdure, by means of aqueducts communicating with the brooks and rivers (Psalm i. 3; lxv. 10; Prov. xxi. 1; Isaiah xxx. 25; xxxii. 2, 20; Hosea xii. 11). Hence springs, fountains, and rivulets, were as much esteemed by husbandmen as by shepherds (Josh. xv. 19; Judges i. 15). The soil was also cleared of stones, and carefully cultivated; and its fertility was increased by the ashes to which the dry stubble and herbage were occasionally reduced by burning over the surface of the ground (Prov. xxiv. 31: Isaiah vii. 23; xxxii. 13). The dung and, in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, the blood of animals, were also used to enrich the soil (2 Kings ix. 37; Psalm lxxxiii. 10; Isaiah xxv. 10; Jer. ix. 22; Luke xiv. 34, 35).

4.Fields.—Under the term dagan, which we translate “grain,” and “corn,” the Hebrews comprehended almost every object of field-culture. Syria, including Palestine, was regarded by the ancients as one of the first countries for corn. Wheat was abundant and excellent; and there is still one bearded sort, the ear of which is three times as heavy, and contains twice as many grains, as our common English wheat. Barley was also much cultivated, not only for bread, but because it was the only kind of corn which was given to beasts; for oats and rye do not thrive in warm climates. Hay was not in use, and therefore the barley was mixed with chopped straw to form the food of beasts: this is what is called “ provender” in Scripture. Other objects of field-culture were millet, spelt, various kinds of beans and peas, pepperwort, cummin, cucumbers, melons, flax, and perhaps cotton. Many other articles might be mentioned as being now cultivated in Palestine, but, as their names do not occur in Scripture, it is difficult to know whether they were grown there in ancient times.

5.Gardens. — The Israelites appear to have been fond of gardens, which, in the East, are chiefly planted with trees, with little regard to order or effect. As, however, the Egyptians were skilful florists, and laid out their gardens with care, introducing beds and borders of flowers, it is likely that the Israelites had some similar practices. Shade was chiefly sought; and, that a double benefit might be realised, the shade of fruit trees was preferred. The more important gardens were named from the prevalence of certain trees in them; as “ the garden of nuts,” “the garden of pomegranates,” &c. (Sol. Song vi. 11). The gardens owed all their freshness to the waters, of which they were never destitute (Num. xxiv. 6; Deut. xi. 10; Sol. Song iv. 15; Isaiah i. 30; lxvi. 17; Jer. xxxi. 12). So attached were the Israelites to their gardens, that they often had their sepulchres in them (2 Kings ix. 37; xxi. 18; Mark xv. 46). Trees were multiplied by seeds and shoots; they were transplanted, dug around, manured, and pruned (Job viii. 16; Isaiah xvii. 10); and the operation of grafting was well known (Rom. xi. 17).

OPERATIONS AND IMPLEMENTS.

1. Of late years much light has been thrown upon the agricultural operations and implements of ancient times by the discovery of various representations on the sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt. As these agree surprisingly with the notices in the Bible, and, indeed, differ little from the existing usages in Syria and Egypt, it is very safe to receive the instruction which they offer.

2.Ploughing.—This has always been a light and superficial operation in the East. At first the ground was opened with pointed sticks; then a kind of hoe was employed, and this, in many parts of the world, is still the substitute for a plough. But the plough was known in Egypt and Syria before the Hebrews became cultivators (Job i. 14). In the East, however, it has always been a light and inartificial implement. At first it was little more than a stout branch of a tree, from which projected another limb, shortened and pointed; this being turned into the ground made the furrows, while at the farther end of the larger branch was fastened a transverse yoke, to which the oxen were harnessed. Afterwards a handle to guide the plough was added: thus the plough consisted of-—1, the pole; 2, the point or share; 3, the handle; 4, the yoke. The Syrian plough is, and doubtless was, light enough for a man to carry with one hand; it was drawn by oxen, which were sometimes urged by a scourge (Isaiah x. 26; Nahum iii. 2), but oftener by a long staff, furnished at one end with a flat piece of metal for clearing the plough, and at the other with a spike for goading the oxen: this ox-goad might be easily used as a spear (Judges iii. 31; 1 Sam. xiii. 21). Sometimes men followed the plough with hoes to break the clods (Isaiah xxviii. 24); but in later times a kind of hammer was employed, which appears to have been then, as now, merely a thick block of wood pressed down by a weight, or by a man sitting on it, and drawn over the ploughed field.

3. Sowing.—The ground, having been ploughed as soon as the autumnal rains had mollified the soil, was fit, by the end of October, to receive the seed; and the sowing of wheat continued, in different situations, through November and into December. Barley was not generally sown till January and February. The seed appears to have been sown and harrowed at the same time; although sometimes it was ploughed in by a cross furrow. The Egyptian paintings illustrate the Scriptures by shewing that the sower held the seed ina basket, with one hand, and scattered it with the other; while another person filled a fresh basket. We also see that the mode of sowing was what we call “broad-cast,” in which the seed is thrown loosely over the field (Matt. xiii. 3-8).

4. Reaping.—The season of harvest has been noticed (p. 23). Different modes of reaping are indicated in Scripture, and illustrated by the Egyptian monuments. In the most ancient times the corn was plucked up by the roots, which continued to be the practice with particular kinds of grain after the sickle was known; in Egypt, at this day, barley and dourra are pulled up by the roots. When the sickle was used, the wheat was either cropped off under the ear, or cut close to the ground; in the former case the straw was afterwards plucked up for use, in the...