Gasification

Front cover

copyright

Contents

Preface

COMPANION WEBSITE

TERMINOLOGY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1. Introduction

1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GASIFICATION

1.2 GASIFICATION TODAY

2. The Thermodynamics of Gasification

2.1 REACTIONS

2.2 THERMODYNAMIC MODELING OF GASIFICATION

2.2.1 Basic Data

2.2.2 Equations

2.2.3 Variables

2.3 DEDUCTIONS FROM THE THERMODYNAMIC MODEL

2.3.1 Effect of Pressure

2.3.2 Effect of Temperature

2.3.3 Fuel Footprint

2.3.4 Surprises in Calculations

2.4 OPTIMIZING PROCESS CONDITIONS

2.4.1 Process Indicators

2.4.2 Optimum Operating Point

3. The Kinetics of Gasification and Reactor Theory

3.1 KINETICS

3.1.1 Devolatilization

3.1.2 Volatiles Combustion

3.1.3 Char Gasification

3.2 REACTOR THEORY

3.3 APPLICATIONS TO REACTOR DESIGN

3.3.1 Modeling

4. Feedstocks and Feedstock Characteristics

4.1 COALS AND COKE

4.1.1 Formation of Coal

4.1.2 Coal Analysis

4.1.3 Other Minerals in Coal

4.1.4 Other Properties

4.1.5 Ash Properties

4.1.6 Coke

4.1.7 Petroleum Coke

4.2 LIQUID AND GASEOUS FEEDSTOCKS

4.2.1 Refinery Residues

4.2.2 Other Liquid Feedstocks

4.2.3 Natural Gas

4.2.4 Other Gaseous Feedstocks

4.3 BIOMASS

4.3.1 Properties of Biomass

4.3.2 Black Liquor

4.3.3 Biomass Production

4.3.4 Development Potential

4.4 WASTES

4.4.1 Solid Waste

4.4.2 Liquid Wastes

5. Gasification Processes

5.1 MOVING- BED PROCESSES

5.1.1 The Lurgi Dry Ash Process

5.1.2 British Gas/ Lurgi ( BGL) Slagging Gasifier

5.1.3 Ruhr 100

5.2 FLUID- BED GASIFIERS

5.2.1 Common Issues

5.2.2 The Winkler Process

5.2.3 The High- Temperature Winkler ( HTW) Process

5.2.4 Circulating Fluid- Bed ( CFB) Processes

5.2.5 The KBR Transport Gasifier

5.2.6 Agglomerating Fluid- Bed Processes

5.2.7 Development Potential

5.3 ENTRAINED- FLOW GASIFIERS

5.3.1 General Considerations

5.3.2 The Koppers- Totzek Atmospheric Process

5.3.3 Shell Coal Gasification Process ( SCGP) and Prenflo Process

5.3.4 The Noell Process

5.3.5 The Texaco Process

5.3.6 The E- Gas Process

5.3.7 The CCP Gasifier

5.3.8 The EAGLE Gasifier

5.4 OIL GASIFICATION AND PARTIAL OXIDATION OF NATURAL GAS

5.4.1 The Texaco Gasification Process

5.4.2 The Shell Gasification Process ( SGP)

5.4.3 Lurgi’s Multipurpose Gasification Process ( MPG)

5.4.4 New Developments

5.4.5 Process Safety

5.5 BIOMASS GASIFICATION

5.5.1 Fluid- Bed Processes

5.5.2 Twin Fluid- Bed Steam Gasification

5.5.3 Pyrolysis Processes

5.5.4 Other Processes

5.6 GASIFICATION OF WASTES

5.6.1 Coal Gasifiers in Waste Service

5.6.2 Purpose Developed Processes

5.7 BLACK LIQUOR GASIFICATION

5.7.1 The Chemrec Process

5.7.2 MTCI "Pulse Enhanced" Steam Reformer

5.8 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES

5.8.1 In situ Gasification

5.8.2 Molten Iron Processes

5.8.3 Plasma Gasification

5.8.4 Hydrogasification

6. Practical Issues

6.1 EFFECT OF PRESSURE

6.2 PRESSURIZATION OF COAL

6.2.1 Dry- Coal Feeding with Lock Hoppers

6.2.2 Pumping Coal as a Coal- Water Slurry

6.2.3 Wet Lock Hoppers

6.2.4 Tall Hoppers for Pressurizing

6.2.5 Miscellaneous Methods of Pressurizing

6.3 COAL SIZING AND DRYING

6.3.1 Coal Sizing

6.3.2 Coal Drying

6.4 REACTOR DESIGN

6.4.1 Reactor Embodiment

6.4.2 Reactor Containment and Heat Loss

6.5 BURNERS

6.6 SYNTHESIS GAS COOLING

6.6.1 Quenching

6.6.2 Synthesis Gas Coolers

6.6.3 Syngas Cooling in Oil Service

6.7 PARTICULATE REMOVAL

6.7.1 Dry Solids Removal

6.7.2 Wet Solids Removal

6.8 PROCESS MEASUREMENT

6.8.1 Gasification Temperature Measurement

6.8.2 Temperature Control

6.8.3 Gas Analysis

6.9 TRACE COMPONENTS OF RAW SYNTHESIS GAS

6.9.1 Sulfur Compounds

6.9.2 Nitrogen Compounds

6.9.3 Chlorine Compounds

6.9.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

6.9.5 Oxygen

6.9.6 Formic Acid

6.9.7 Carbon

6.9.8 Metal Carbonyls

6.9.9 Mercury

6.9.10 Arsenic

6.10 CHOICE OF OXIDANT

6.10.1 Effect of Oxidant on the Gasification Process

6.10.2 Equipment Sizing and Gas Flow Rate

6.10.3 Parasitic Power

6.10.4 Deductions

6.11 CORROSION ASPECTS

6.11.1 Sulfur

6.11.2 Hydrogen

6.11.3 Chlorides

6.11.4 Metal Dusting

7. Applications

7.1 CHEMICALS

7.1.1 Ammonia

7.1.2 Methanol

7.1.3 Hydrogen

7.1.4 Carbon Monoxide and Oxo- Alcohols

7.2 SYNFUELS

7.2.1 Gas to Liquids

7.2.2 SNG from Coal

7.3 POWER

7.3.1 Comparison with Combustion

7.3.2 State- of- the- Art IGCC

7.3.3 Advanced Cycles

7.3.4 Flue Gas Treatment

7.3.5 Miscellaneous

7.3.6 Energy Storage

8. Auxiliary Technologies

8.1 OXYGEN SUPPLY

8.1.1 Technologies

8.1.2 Pipeline and Other Supply Possibilities

8.2 SYNTHESIS GAS TREATING

8.2.1 Selection Criteria

8.2.2 Absorption Systems

8.2.3 Adsorption Systems

8.2.4 Membrane Systems

8.2.5 Further Developments

8.2.6 Biomass Syngas Treating

8.3 CO SHIFT

8.3.1 Clean Gas Shift

8.3.2 Raw Gas Shift

8.4 SULFUR RECOVERY

8.4.1 The Claus Process

8.4.2 Tail Gas Treatment

8.4.3 Integration in an IGCC

8.4.4 Sulfuric Acid

9. Economics, Environmental, and Safety Issues

9.1 ECONOMICS

9.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

9.2.1 Gaseous Effluents

9.2.2 Greenhouse Gases

9.2.3 Liquid Effluents

9.2.4 Solid Effluents

9.2.5 Waste Gasification

9.3 SAFETY

9.3.1 Start- Up

9.3.2 Shutdown

9.3.3 Spontaneous Combustion

9.3.4 Toxic and Asphyxiating Materials

9.3.5 Oxygen

10. Gasification and the Future

Appendix A: Companion Website

Appendix B: Conversion Factors

Appendix C: Emissions Conversion Factors

Appendix D: Guidelines for Reporting Operating Statistics for Gasification Facilities

Appendix E: Basis for Calculations

Nomenclature

List of Names and Abbreviations

Index