Organic farming for sustainable livelihoods in developing countries? - The case of cotton in India

Contents

Preface

Glossary

Abbreviations and symbols

Acknowledgements

Executive summary

1 Is organic farming a viable option for developing countries?

1.1 Organic farming in developing countries

1.1.1 Challenges for farmers in developing countries

1.1.2 Possible options to approach the challenges

1.1.3 The concept and the potential of organic farming

1.2 The case of cotton

1.2.1 The importance of cotton

1.2.2 Problems in conventional cotton farming

1.2.3 Genetically modified cotton

1.2.4 Is organic cotton farming an alternative?

1.3 The case study and the research region

1.3.1 The Maikaal bioRe organic cotton initiative

1.3.2 The research region

1.3.3 Organic and conventional cotton cultivation

1.4 Research objectives and questions

2 Conceptualizing rural livelihoods

2.1 In search of a conceptual approach

2.1.1 Livelihoods in transition

2.1.2 How livelihood approaches developed

2.1.3 Why does it matter how to approach livelihood?

2.2 Strengths and shortcomings of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach

2.2.1 Insights gained through the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach

2.2.2 Livelihoods are more than assets

2.2.3 Beyond utility maximisation

2.3 Re-thinking livelihood approaches

2.3.1 Inner and outer reality of rural livelihoods

2.3.2 How do livelihood strategies develop?

2.4 A new synthesis

2.4.1 Suggesting a refined livelihood framework

2.4.2 Application of the framework in the research project

3 Research approach and methods

3.1 The research approach

3.1.1 Quantitative and qualitative research

3.1.2 Study parts

3.2 Methodology of the system comparison

3.2.1 Approach and hypotheses of the system comparison

3.2.2 Data collection

3.2.3 Farm sample selection

3.2.4 Soil sampling and analysis

3.2.5 Data processing

3.3 Methodology of the adoption analysis

3.3.1 Approach of the adoption analysis

3.3.2 Exploratory interviews

3.3.3 Controversial statement analysis

3.3.4 Group discussion based on video screening

3.3.5 Observation protocols

3.3.6 Research feedback

3.3.7 Interviews on changes in the livelihood system

3.3.8 Comparison with other organic cotton initiatives

4 The impact of organic farming

4.1 Differences in cultivation practices

4.1.1 Cropping patterns

4.1.2 Manure and fertilizer input in cotton cultivation

4.1.3 Irrigation in cotton cultivation

4.1.4 Labour input in cotton cultivation

4.2 Impact on soil fertility

4.2.1 Texture, water retention and organic matter

4.2.2 Soil nutrients, salinity and pH

4.3 Differences in productivity

4.3.1 Impact on cotton yields

4.3.2 Productivity of rotation crops

4.3.3 Possible ways for improving the productivity

4.4 The economic impact of organic farming

4.4.1 Production costs in organic cotton

4.4.2 Profitability of organic cotton cultivation

4.4.3 Economic performance of the farm

4.5 Summary: The impact of organic farming

5 Understanding the adoption of organic farming from a livelihood perspective

5.1 Decision-making in the core of livelihoods

5.1.1 Socio-economic profiles of adopters and non-adopters

5.1.2 Perceptions and attitudes of cotton farmers

5.2 The role of the livelihood context in decision-making

5.2.1 The role of the risk and opportunity context

5.2.2 Relation to the context of policies, institutions, organisations and processes

5.3 Organic agriculture as a part of a livelihood strategy

5.3.1 The strategy development process

5.3.2 Implementing the strategy ‘organic farming’

5.3.3 Obstacles to conversion

5.4 Outcomes of adopting organic farming

5.4.1 Perception and interpretation of outcomes of organic farming

5.4.2 Changes in vulnerability and dependencies

5.4.3 Learning processes

Learning processes of the farmers

5.5 Dropping out of organic farming

5.5.1 Profiles of defaulters

5.5.2 Motivations for dropping out of organic farming

5.5.3 Outcomes of defaulting

5.6 Summary: Adopting organic farming

6 Utilizing organic farming as a viable development option

6.1 Potentials and limitations of organic farming for improving livelihoods

6.1.1 The impact of organic farming on livelihoods

6.1.2 Integrating organic farming into a livelihood strategy

6.2 Success factors and constraints in disseminating organic farming

6.2.1 Recommendations for support activities

6.2.2 Policy implications

6.3 Concluding remarks

References

Annex

1 Background information on the Maikaal bioRe project and its region

1.1 Details of the Maikaal bioRe project (2003–2005)

1.2 Average farm size in the Maikaal bioRe project

1.3 Rainfall in the project region

1.4 Crops grown in the project region

1.5 Population data of Maheshwar and Kasravad Tehsil

1.6 Castes in the project region

2 Methodology

2.1 Approximation formula for irrigation water quantities

3 Results of the system comparison study

3.1 Cropping patterns in cotton farms

3.2 Labour, nutrient and irrigation input in cotton cultivation

3.3 Soil parameters in cotton fields

3.4 Seed cotton yields in different sub-groups of cotton fields

3.5 Yield models for organic and conventional cotton farming

3.6 Economic performance of cotton cultivation

3.7 Performance of rotation crops

3.8 Economic impact on the farm

3.9 Profiles of organic, conventional and defaulting farms

4 Results of the adoption analysis (qualitative research)

4.1 Perceptions and attitudes of conventional farmers

4.2 The relation of cotton farms to their context

4.3 Integrating organic farming into the livelihood strategy

4.4 Implementing organic farming as a part of a livelihood strategy

4.5 Obstacles to converting to organic farming

4.6 Changes in the livelihood situation perceived by organic farmers after adoption

4.7 Organic farms and their relation to the context

4.8 Learning processes

4.9 Dropping out of organic farming (‘defaulting’)

5 Methodological reflection on the research approach

5.1 Suitability of the RL-Framework

5.2 Reflection on the research methods